S 


103    107 


imNCOTTS 
HOME  MANUALS 

t  to  be  taken  from  Koom  505 


7 


HOUSEWIFERY 


L.RAYBALDERSTON.A.M. 


"Survey  our  empire  and  behold  our  home  ! " 

— BYRON. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY 
BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  HOUSEHOLD  ECONOMICS,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


HOUSEWIFERY 

A  MANUAL  AND  TEXT  BOOK 
OF  PRACTICAL  HOUSEKEEPING 

BY  LYDIA  RAY  BALDERSTON,  A.M. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN   HOUSEWIFERY   AND    LAUNDERING,   TEACHERS   COLLEGB, 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW   YORK  CITY 


LippiNcoTT's  HOME  MANUALS 

Edited  by  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

CLOTHING  FOR  WOMEN 

By  LAURA   I.    BALDT,  A.M.,   Teachers    College,   Columbia   University. 
454  Pages,  7  Colored  Plates,  202  Illustrations  in  Text. 

SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

By  OLA  POWELL,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.      425 
Pages,  5  Colored  Plates,  174  Illustrations  in  Text.     Third  Edition. 

HOME  AND  COMMUNITY  HYGIENE 

By  JEAN  BROADHURST,  Ph.D.    428  Pages,  i  Colored  Plate,  118  Illustra- 
tions in  Text. 

THE  BUSINESS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

By  C.  W.  TABER,  Author  of  Taber's  Dietetic  Charts,  Nurses'  Medical  Dic- 
tionary, etc.     438  Pages.     Illustrated.     Second  Edition,  Revised. 

HOUSEWIFERY 

By  L.RAY  BALDERSTON,  AM.,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
351  Pages.     Colored  Frontispiece  and  175  Illustrations  in  Text. 

LAUNDERING 

By  LYDIA  RAY  BALDERSTON,  A.M.,    Instructor  in  Housewifery  and 
Laundering,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.     152  Illustrations. 

HOUSE  AND  HOME 

By    GRETA  GREY,  B.S.,    Director  of    Home     Economics     Department. 
University  of  Wyoming.     Illustrated. 

MILLINERY  (In  Preparation) 

By  EVELYN  SMITH  TOBEY,  B.S.,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

LIPPINCOTT'S  FAMILY  LIFE 
SERIES 

Edited  by  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

CLOTHING— CHOICE,  CARE,  COST 

By  MARY  SCHENCK  WOOLMAN,  B.S.     290  Pages.     Illustrated.    Second 
Edition. 

SUCCESSFUL  FAMILY  LIFE  ON  THE  MODERATE  INCOME 

By  MARY  HINMAN  ABEL.    263  Pages. 
THE  FAMILY  AND  ITS  MEMBERS 

By  ANNA  GARLIN  SPENCER,  Special  Lecturer  in  Social  Science,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 


LIPPINCOTT'S  HOME 

EDITED  BY  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


HOUSEWIFERY 

A  MANUAL  AND    TEXT  BOOK 
OF  PRACTICAL  HOUSEKEEPING 


BY 

LYDIA  RAY  BALDERSTON,  A.M. 

INSTRUCTOR   IN   HOUSEWIFERY    AND 'LAUNDERING,   TEACHERS   COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA 

UNIVERSITY,  NEW  YORK  CITT 
AUTHOR  OP  "LAUNDERING" 


175  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 
SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED 


PHILADELPHIA    AND    LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


,  To 


COPYRIGHT,    IQIQ,    BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT,    1921,    BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


- 

-A^txn   /  r 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 
TO 

E.  M.  BALDERSTON 


539976 


"The  poetry  of  life  always 
has  a  practical  side  to  it,  and 
most  practical  affairs  rightly 
worked  out  are  full  of  poetry." 


PREFACE 

THIS  handbook  of  practical  housekeeping  is  offered  to  women 
in  the  hope  that  it  may  show  in  some  measure  how  to  reduce  tasks 
in  the  home  and  how  to  save  time,  money,  and  energy.  This  book 
will  be  of  direct  help  to  the  many  women  who  do  their  own  work 
or  supervise  household  employes  and  who  are  seeking  guidance 
by  consulting  reference  books  as  other  professional  workers  do. 
The  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  many  years  of  experience  in  house- 
keeping and  in  teaching  housewifery  to  groups  of  practical  house- 
keepers, with  emphasis  upon  the  technical  processes  of  the  home. 
It  is  designed  to  help  not  only  the  individual  home  woman  but  to 
serve  as  a  text  for  study  groups  of  rural  extension  and  other  club- 
women and  in  the  housekeepers'  courses  given  by  schools  and 
colleges.  Any  further  study  of  the  sciences,  directly  or  indirectly 
connected  with  housewifery,  may  be  carried  on  by  means  of  the 
references  suggested  throughout  the  book. 

Because  of  the  many  requests  from  former  students,  who  are  now 
teachers,  for  a  book  that  brings  housewifery  topics  within  one  cover, 
the  author  offers  these  suggestions  from  her  experience.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  outline  of  courses,  the  bibliography,  and  the  sug- 
gestions for  laboratory  supervision  will  meet  the  need  so  often 
expressed  by  teachers. 

The  prices  stated  in  the  book  are  merely  to  give  relative  value, 
and  can  not  be  considered  as  definite  in  any  locality. 

It  is  with  much  appreciation  that  the  author  acknowledges  assist- 
ance in  reading  the  manuscript  to  Dr.  B.  R.  Andrews,  Teachers 
College;  Miss  Matilda  J.  McKeown,  formerly  Instructor  of  House- 
wifery, Teachers  College;  and  Professor  Emma  H.  Gunther,  De- 
partment of  Household  Administration,  Teachers  College. 

L.  RAY  BALDERSTON. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT  is  herewith  made  for  the  use  of  illustrative 
material  as  follows : 

Figures  1,  5,  6  and  7,  drawn  by  Marcia  Mead,  of  Sehenck  & 
Mead. 

Figures  17, 18  and  19,  U.  S.  Government  Bulletin. 

Figures  20  and  22,  Standard  Plumbing  Company,  Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania. 

Figure  27,  Home  Helps  Company,  New  York  City. 

Figure  29,  J.  L.  Mott  Iron  Works,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

Figure  33,  Dangler  Stove  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Figure  44,  Richardson  &  Boynton,  New  York  City. 

Figures  51  and  94,  Consolidated  Gas  Company,  New  York  City. 

Figure  53,  The  Cleveland  Metal  Products  Company,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

Figure  55,  H.  R.  Corwin  Manufacturing  Company,  Newark,  New 
Jersey. 

Figure  58,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Figure  59,  Caloric  Cooker  Company. 

Figure  65,  Janes  &  Kirtland,  New  York  City. 

Figures  70  and  71,  Chas.  N.  Kain,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Figure  74,  Dodge  &  Zuill,  Syracuse,  New  York. 

Figure  75,  Hurley  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  City. 

Figure  76,  1900  Manufacturing  Company,  Binghamton,  New 
York. 

Figure  77,  Joseph  L.  Cohen,  New  York  City. 

Figure  78,  Hill  Dryer  Company,  Worcester,  Massachusetts. 

Figure  80,  Chicago  Dryer  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Figure  83,  Roma  Manufacturing  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Figure  87,  Duntley  Pneumatic  Sweeper  Company,  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

Figure  88,  Franc  Premier  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Figure  89,  Cadillac  Cleaner  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Figure  136,  E.  C.  Stearns  &  Company,  Syracuse,  New  York. 

Figure  159,  The  Metal  Sanitary  Toilet  Cleaner,  J.  Anderson, 
New  York  City. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS 1 

II .  PLUMBING 21 

III.  HEATING   AND  LIGHTING 52 

IV.  EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES — 1 84 

V.  EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES — II 103 

VI.  HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES 129 

VII.  HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 148 

VIII.  STORAGE 204 

IX.  CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS,  BEDS,  BATHROOM,  KITCHEN, 

METALS 240 

X.  CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION . . . 273 

XI.  DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 297 

XII.  HOUSEHOLD  PESTS 307 

XIII.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  ...  .318 


HOUSEWIFERY 

CHAPTEE  I 
HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS 

"HOUSEWIFERY  is  the  business  of  the  mistress  of  the  family.'3 
If  this  definition  were  analyzed  in  detail,  we  should  find  the  word 
"business"  meaning  concern;  "mistress,"  the  person  versed  in 
everything ;  and  "  family/'  a  group  of  individuals  living  under  one 
roof.  Thus,  to  enlarge  the  definition,  it  would  read :  Housewifery  is 
the  concern  of  the  person  versed  in  everything  pertaining  to  a  group 
of  individuals  living  under  one  roof. 

The  accepted  fact  to-day  is  that  every  housewife  ought  to  become 
as  proficient  in  her  realm  as  the  business  man  is  in  his.  As  a 
man  can  not  do  good  work  without  the  best  facilities  and  the  most 
careful  organization  in  his  office,  so  the  housewife  is  handicapped 
unless  her  workshop  is  suitably  planned  and  arranged. 

In  order  that  the  plan  of  the  house  add  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  housewife's  work,  there  should  be  careful  consideration  given 
to  the  division  of  the  space  in  the  house,  because  it  is  only  through 
dividing  and  planning  that  there  can  be  any  real  organized  business. 

Division  of  Space  in  the  Home. — Any  house  already  built  may 
involve  conditions  that  are  not  idealy  but  the  division  of  most  homes 
is  into  three  parts :  the  work  unit,  the  recreation  unit,  and  the  rest 
unit.  No  matter  how  small  the  house  is,  this  division  is  auto- 
matically made.  It  increases  or  decreases  in  area  according  to  the 
income,  and  the  size  of  the  family. 

Work  Unit. — The  work  unit  of  the  house  includes  the  kitchen, 
the  pantry,  the  laundry,  and  the  cellar.  As  long  as  this  group  of 
rooms  is  literally  a  workshop,  these  rooms  must  not  only  be  arranged 
to  give  the  worker  good  light,  but  the  various  tools  and  equipment 
ought  to  be  so  placed  that  the  housewife  is  saved  the  fatigue  which 
results  from  taking  unnecessary  steps,  and  from  carrying  tools  and 
materials  a  greater  distance  than  is  necessary. 

1 


2  HOUSEWIFERY 

The  kitchen  work-shop  itself  is  to  be  arranged  by  division  into 
units.  The  units  are  controlled  by  different  processes.  For  exam- 
ple, the  mixing  of  food  is  usually  at  a  table  or  cabinet  with  the 
shelves  above  it;  the  processes  of  cooking  and  baking  are  done 
around  a  stove ;  the  washing  of  foods  and  dishes  is  done  at  a  sink ; 
so  that  the  table,  the  stove,  and  the  sink,  each  becomes  a  center  of 
these  units,  about  which  should  be  placed  the  necessary  small  uten- 
sils and  equipment. 

In  a  large  kitchen,  as  in  many  farm  house  kitchens,  it  will  be 
a  great  saving  if  the  room  be  divided  by  an  imaginary  line  into 
the  work  part  of  the  kitchen  and  the  rest  part.  Under  these 
conditions,  a  large  kitchen  is  not  a  handicap  (except  for  the  extra 
space  to  clean)  because  it  makes  better  ventilation  possible;  and 
if,  in  the  work  part  of  the  kitchen,  one  groups  in  a  close  relationship 
stove,  table,  and  sink,  one  not  only  reduces  the  work  of  the  large 
kitchen  but  gains  the  benefit  of  better  air.  The  housekeeper,  who 
has  so  many  interruptions  in  her  work,  might  use  this  rest  portion 
of  her  kitchen  for  her  sewing  machine  and  a  small  table,  so  that 
it  would  be  possible  for  her  to  do  some  of  her  sewing,  reading  or 
studying  during  the  time  she  is  watching  her  food. 

In  the  laundry  there  are  two  distinct  units,  so  that  automati- 
cally the  laundry  divides  itself  into  parts,  one  where  the  washing  is 
carried  on,  and  the  other  where  the  ironing  is  done.  The  stove 
is  the  connecting  link  between  these  two  laundry  units  and  should 
be  placed  so  that  it  is  convenient  to  each. 

The  pantry  is  a  part  of  the  work  unit,  connecting  the  kitchen 
and  the  dining  room.  The  dining  room  is  between  the  work  unit 
and  the  recreation  unit,  and  therefore  in  its  plan  is  influenced  by 
both  units.  The  efficiency  of  the  pantry  is  increased  by  having  a 
sink  and  sufficient  closet  room  so  that  all  the  work  of  serving  and 
clearing  away  may  be  done  without  going  the  greater  distance  into 
the  kitchen.  Such  a  pantry  is  called  a  butler's  pantry.  In  order 
that  it  serve  its  purpose  best,  there  should  be  two  doors,  one  into 
the  kitchen  and  one  into  the  dining  room.  A  kitchen  pantry  having 
only  one  door  is  less  convenient. 

When  the  housewife  has  all  the  work  to  do  herself,  she  may  not 
care  to  consider  the  butler's  pantry,  but  instead  may  secure  a  clo'se 
relationsihip  between  the  dining  room  and  the  kitchen  by  having  a 
large  window-like  opening  made  in  the  wall,  fitted  with  a  glass  or 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  3 

wooden  slide  to  reduce  the  work  of  serving.  To  add  to  the  conven- 
ience of  such  a  slide,  plan  large  shelves  on  both  sides  so  as  to  have 
plenty  of  room  for  the  dishes.  Standing  a  screen  on  the  dining 
room  side  will  make  this  window  serve  the  purpose  of  a  pantry,  and 
do  away  with  the  extra  walking  which  the  width  of  a  pantry 
requires. 

Recreation  Unit. — The  recreation  unit  may  be  one  room,  the 
living  room,  in  which  the  family  may  assemble.  Whether  it  also 
includes  a  library,  a  parlor,  a  reception  room,  a  den,  and  other 
special  rooms  and  porches,  depends  entirely  upon  the  method  of 
living  of  the  family.  The  dining  room  belongs  equally,  of  course, 
to  the  recreation  unit. 

Rest  Unit. — The  rest  unit  depends  largely  upon  the  number  in 
the  household.  This  is  true  to  'Such  an  extent  that  if  an  architect 
is  called  for  advice,  the  house  plans  are  made  around  the  number 
of  bedrooms  required.  The  bathroom  belongs  to  this  unit,  and 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  family  depends  to  a  large  extent 
on  the  placing  of  the  bathroom,  and  its  relationship  to  the  bedrooms. 
Every  effort  should  be  made  to  have  this  unit  quiet,  and  accessible 
without  going  through  the  other  two  units.  The  arrangement 
of  the  'hallways  will  be  entirely  responsible  for  this. 

Small  individual  bedrooms,  while  making  a  larger  house,  are 
greatly  preferred  so  that  each  may  have  his  own  room.  Bedrooms 
are  decidedly  rooms  for  the  individual.  A  guest  room  might  be 
put  in  an  especially  quiet  part  of  the  house,  for  then  it  might  be 
used  as  a  sick  room  if  needed.  Each  bedroom  should  have,  if 
possible,  two  windows  opening  in  different  directions  so  as  to  secure 
currents  of  air,  for  much  of  the  comfort  of  the  night's  rest  will 
depend  upon  this.  Let  no  architect's  plea  for  low-lying  roofs, 
which  reduce  the  exposure  of  bedrooms  to  a  single  direction,  have 
weight  compared  with  the  standard  of  "two  windows  for  every 
bedroom,  opening  in  different  directions."  The  rest  unit  should 
have  all  the  sunlight  possible,  remembering  that  the  sun  is  one  of 
the  best  disinfectants. 

As  the  rest  unit  is  best  placed  on  the  south  or  sunny  side  of 
the  house,  so  the  work  unit  may  be  placed  at  the  north  of  the 
house,  because  these  rooms  require  artificial  heat  in  the  work 
processes,  then  in  winter  they  will  be  warm  enough,  and  in  summer 
they  will  be  cooler  away  from  the  sun.  The  choice  position  for 


4  HOUSEWIFERY 

the  dining  room  is  at  the  east,  because  the  cheer  of  early  morning 
sun  is  pleasanter  than  that  of  the  low  setting  sun  if  the  dining  room 
were  on  the  west. 

Halls  or  passageways  may  connect  the  three  units.  This  rela- 
tionship, properly  established,  does  much  toward  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  house  and  reducing  its  labor.  The  hallways  make 
convenient  the  passing  from  one  division  of  the  home  to  another, 
improve  ventilation,  facilitate  supervision,  and  may  make  the  home 
more  attractive  by  an  interrelation  of  color  in  walls  and  furnishings. 
Houses  without  halls  may  not  only  be  noisy,  especially  in  the  rest 
center,  but,  unless  carefully  planned,  will  not  make  for  privacy. 

All  of  these  things  may  not  be  possible  in  a  house  which  one 
rents,  but  in  a  new  house  they  are  possible  through  the  sugges- 
tions of  the  housekeeper,  her  help  in  making  architects'  plans, 
and  iher  cooperation  with  the  builder. 

Housewife's  Suggestions  to  Architect. — If  this  thought  of 
establishing  units  is  kept  in  mind  by  the  housewife,  the  new  home 
may  be  planned  in  a  most  efficient  manner,  for  there  will  be  a  close 
relationship  of  doors  to  the  yards  and  to  stairways,  and  windows 
will  be  so  placed  as  to  produce  not  only  cross  ventilation  but 
to  give  proper  light  on  the  work.  Wall  spaces  will  be  planned 
so  as  to  furnish  suitable  backgrounds  for  the  placement  of  stoves, 
tubs,  sinks  and  furniture. 

Cellar  stairs  should  bring  a  close  connection  between  kitchen 
and  cellar;  coal  bins  in  the  cellar  should  be  so  connected  with  the 
outside  windows  as  to  allow  direct  delivery  of  coal  into  the  bins; 
and  the  furnace  and  the  bin  for  furnace  coal  -should  be  close  enough 
together  to,  eliminate  the  strain  of  carrying  coal.  Kitchen  coal  or 
wood,  if  not  ju^st  outside  the  kitchen  door,  should  be  in  a  bin  near 
the  stairs  leading  from  the  cellar  to  the  kitchen.  To  make  the 
journey  down  cellar  as  easy  as  possible,  plan  comfortable  cellar 
stairs  that  are  not  too  steep,  that  is,  with  a  wide  tread  and  a  step 
not  too  high:  and  for  safety,  plan  that  the  stairsi  be  well  lighted 
from  a  window  if  possible,  and  certainly  by  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of  artificial  lighting. 

Every  workshop  must  have  thorough  ventilation.  It  is  a  proved 
fact  that  much  fatigue  and  thus,  indirectly,,  many  accidents  are 
caused  by  poor  ventilation.  The  best  ventilation  is  by  windows 
which  give  cross  drafts.  Where  such  windows  cannot  possibly  be 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  5 

secured,  transoms  over  doors  add  much  to  better  ventilation;  an 
objection  to  them  is  a  greater  possibility  of  noise  and  correspond- 
ingly less  privacy. 

For  the  convenience  of  cleaning,  and  for  sanitary  reasons, 
curved  baseboards  in  kitchen,  laundry,  and  bathroom,  should  be 
considered  in  the  planning  of  a  new  house.  If  an  old  house  is 
being  made  over,  it  is  possible  to  set  in  a  curved  foundation,  if  a 
new  floor  is  to  be  laid  over  the  old. 


W/, 

¥-0"    -4 


FIG.  1. — Architect's  method  of  indicating  houseplans.  Easily  drawn  on  special  paper 
which  is  blocked  off  in  quarter  inch  squares.  Allow  M  inch  for  a  foot. 

That  the  housewife  may  be  able  not  only  to  help  make  plans 
for  the  new  house,  and  changes  in  the  old,  but  to  express  herself 
to  the  architect  so  that  he  in  turn  may  know  what  fihe  wants,  these 
drawings  expressed  in  architectural  form  are  presented  to  assist 
her.  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4  give  examples  of  the  various  conventions 
used  in  architects'  drawings.  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7  are  architects' 
drawings  of  typical  houseplans — for,  respectively,  a  workman's 
house,  a  farm  house,  and  a  Colonial  house. 


6 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Space  for  Furniture. — After  the  plan  for  the  house  has  been 
made,  and  before  it  is  accepted  as  final,  the  housewife  should  check 
up  some  very  important  points.  For  example,  does  the  wall  space 
in  the  bedroom  allow  for  a  space  for  the  bed  ?  Whether  the  furni- 
ture has  been  purchased  or  not,  there  are  obviously  certain  pieces 
of  furniture  that  will  hiave  to  be  placed  in  the  house.  In  order 
to  have  the  proper  space  for  these  pieces  of  furniture,  she  can 
measure  and  (to  the  same  scale  as  the  house  plans)  cut  pieces  of 
cardboard  which  represent  the  large  pieces  of  furniture.  These 
pieces  of  cardboard  may  be  moved  on  the  plan,  and  if  the  measure- 
ments are  accurate,  they  will  prove  whether  the  space  allowed  for 
the  bureau  or  bed  or  sideboard  is  large  enough.  If  she  has  not 


w.c 


a ,3i  n 


Tub 


FIG.  2. — Indicating  plumbing  fixtures. 

bought  the  furniture,  she  should  measure  for  the  standard  sizes 
of  furniture  as  found  in  the  stores,  and  this  standard  may  well  be 
taken  as  a  minimum  space,  anyway. 

Placing  Tools  and  Equipment. — After  the  house  is  planned, 
consideration  next  is  given  to  purchasing  tools  and  equipment,  in 
fact,  all  the  things  needed  for  work.  The  housewife  may  buy  her 
equipment  and  arrange  her  work-shop  so  that  it  represents  the 
possibility  of  the  greateist  amount  of  work  with  the  least  possible 
cost  for  equipment,  and  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  effort  in 
accomplishing  the  work.  (For  suggestions  which  may  be  of  service 
in  buying  equipment,  see  chapter  on  Equipment  and  Labor-saving 
Appliances.) 

Until  the  housewife  realizes  that  the  standard  of  equipment 
she  uses  and  the  way  it  is  arranged  represent  two-thirds  of  the 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  7 

household  work  problem,  she  has  not  fully  started  the  business 
of  housekeeping.  Until  then  she  has  no  right  to  check  up  a  maid 
as  to  whether  she  is  slow  or  unskilful,  because  the  best  trained 
woman  is  handicapped  in  producing  standard  results  if  her  tools 
are  poorly  selected  and  poorly  arranged. 

Makeshifts  of  tools  may  represent  temporary  money  economy, 
but  often  there  would  be  permanent  money  economy  if  the  right  tool 


•  7-0 


3-0" 

J_ 


Double 


-7-0" 


Crib 

iXlf 

Dining  UTH  Table 
[Ain  3lz*3       ^ 

1=1 

^=3 

#0" 

I 

n 


a 


Allow  6"  for  Trim 


Clo.set.5 


FIG.  3.  —  Indicating  beds,  tables,  closets. 


were  chosen  for  the  special  task.  It  is  on  this  point  that  the 
business  man  excels  the  woman  in  her  business  of  housekeeping,  for 
he  plans  to  get  the  right  tool,  while  she  often  plans  to  see  how 
long  she  can  do  without  buying  it. 

The  best  tools,  poorly  arranged,  may  give  only  fifty  per  cent. 
of  their  efficiency.  Here  again,  in  industry,  men,  standardize  tools 
and  shop  organization,  selecting  not  only  the  best  tools,  but  assem- 
'bling  them  so  that  they  may  be  used  by  the  worker  without  loss 
of  time  and  effort,  thus  securing  a  corresponding  reduction  of 
fatigue.  A  good  example  of  assembling  tools  and  small  utensils  in  a 


HOUSEWIFERY 


iii        'ill 

LLUiiiLU 


PLAN 


Platf 


Will 


hole 


FlG>  4._lndicating  stairs  and  landings.    The  landing  should  be  the  width  of  the  stairway. 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  9 

kitchen  might  be  taken  from  that  of  a  chefs  table  in  a  hotel  or  a 
cook's  kitchen  on  shipboard,  where  everything  must  be  "  ship  shape." 
The  arrangement  of  the  rack  above  the  table,  the  hooks  beneath  or 
at  the  side,  the  deep  shelf  or  the  additional  shelf — all  these  bring 
the  tools  together  and  represent  that  well-organized  economy  which 
makes  for  scientific  housekeeping. 

Certain  things  have  been  done  for  so  long — almost  centuries — 
that  the  new  ideas,  so  called,  of  the  housewife  are  often  considered 
non- workable.  The  placing  of  a  washtub  is  one  of  the  best  illus- 
trations of  this,  because  almost  since  set  washtubs  have  been  in 
existence,  they  have  been  placed  with  their  backs  to  the  window. 
Such  a  position  for  a  tub  not  only  produces  a  strain  on  the  worker's 
eyes,  but  is  in  no  way  as  satisfactory  as  the  side  light  secured  by 
placing  the  tubs  at  the  side  of  a  window.  The  same  rule  holds 
good  for  placing  sinks. 

A  most  important  point,  too,  is  the  height  of  tubs  and  other 
working  surfaces.  Until  the  last  few  years  a  woman  who  stood 
erect  seems  not  to  have  been  credited  with  doing  work,  because  all 
her  equipment  has  been  placed  so  that  she  not  only  stoops  over 
her  work,  but  almost  crouches  over  it.  The  whole  idea  of  high 
washtubs  and  sinks  is  so  modern  that  the  housewife  will  find  it 
difficult  to  obtain  them  to-day  unless  she  .stands  guard  over  tEe 
work  as  the  architects  and  plumbers  are  making  their  measure- 
ments and  installations.  Tables  can  be  made  higher;  stoves  can  be 
lifted;  portable  ironing  boards  and  washtubs  can  be  made  higher 
with  so  little  cost  that  it  is  only  the  matter  of  the  housewife  demand- 
ing that  the  change  be  made.  Sinks  and  stationary  washtubs,  how- 
ever, can  not  be  changed  without  some  expense  attached.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  important  that  they  be  properly  placed  in  the  begin- 
ning if  possible ;  if  not,  it  may  be  -worth  the  extra  expense  to  have 
them  lifted  to  a  height  that  will  be  comfortable  for  the  worker. 

Standardizing. — Tools  and  Tasks:  Fully  as  important,  in 
turn,  as  the  right  selection  and  placement  of  tools  and  equipment 
is  the  matter  of  standardizing  them  for  the  work  they,  have  to  do. 
The  woman  who  has  had  training  'automatically  tries  to  reduce 
the  time  and  effort  required  for  her  work,  and  by  means  of  her 
training  becomes  vitally  interested  in  cutting  down  the  time  and 
eliminating  unnecessary  motions  in  her  household  tasks.  House- 
work is  indeed  fascinating  and  interesting  and  much  of  its  monotony 


10 


HOUSEWIFERY 


I 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS 


11 


is  gone  when  she  really  "  plays  the  game "  intently.  From  this 
time-and-motion-study,  she  will  learn  not  only  how  to  do  her  work 
more  scientifically,  but  the  next  time  she  purchases  tools  she  will 
make  a  wider  selection  and  a  wiser  choice  in  what  she  buys,  because 
she  has  learned  how  some  things  hinder  and  other  things  help  in 
her  work. 


FIG.  6. — Farmhouse.      The  good  feature  of  this  plan  is  that  it  is  a  compact  bungalow 
with  each  unit  so  distinct  that  it  may  be  entirely  closed  otf.     Planning  the  kitchen  to 


plan  with  each  ~ — v  ~~  ~, 
face  the  road  adds  cheer. 


How  many  housewives  have  counted  the  motions  necessary  and 
unnecessary  and  kept  account  of  the  time  in  making  a  bed  or 
cleaning  a  bathtub?  Have  they  ever  taken  account,  in  making  a 
bed,  of  the  unnecessary  steps  in  going  from  the  bed  to  the  chair 
where  the  clothes  are  airing?  How  many  unnecessary  motions 


12 


HOUSEWIFERY 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  13 

are  used  in  the  process  of  making  ?  Of  course,  the  gain  from  such  a 
•study  is  to  see  how  the  effort  may  be  reduced  and  the  standard  of 
the  finished  product  remain  the  same. 

For  a  comparative  study  where  tools  and  materials  enter  in,  a 
bathroom  might  be  chosen.  The  type  of  brush  used  versus  a  cloth; 
the  question  of  soap  powder  versus  soap;  the  rinsing  by  a  bath 
spray  versus  filling  the  tub  with  water;  a  isoft  spongy  cloth  versus 
none,  when,  a  tub  is  spotted — all  these  play  a  part  in  the  study. 
Such  a  study  can  in  no  way  be  called  standardizing  of  tasks 
unless  the  worker  has  an  ideal,  and  unless  <she  is  willing  to  check 
herself  by  many  studies.  But  even  brief  efforts  with  such  studies 
will  prove  stimulating  and  'practically  helpful. 

If  the  housewife  is  interested  in  such  a  study,  it  will  not  take 
her  long  to  note  that  the  results  are  influenced  by  the  skill  of  the 
worker,  by  the  height  of  the  working  surface,  by  the  tools  and  sup- 
plies being  fitted  to  their,  tasks,  and  even  by  the  time  of  day  and 
the  consequent  fatigue  of  the  worker.  If  she  has  become  inter- 
ested in  any  one  study,  she  will  soon  find  herself  going  about  all  the 
different  tasks  of  housework,  testing  how  these  time-and-motion 
studies  may  be  applied  to  routine  processes  like  window  washing, 
setting  the  table,  dusting,  and  the  like.  She  will  become  so  inter- 
ested in  the  study  that  the  so-called  drudgery  of  housework  becomes 
an  interesting  game. 

Score -Cards:  Score  cards  are  like  a  tally  -sheet  in  which  rating 
of  some  task  or  tool  or  material  is  made  on  a  percentage  basis. 
The  sum  total  for  perfect  conditions  or  results  equals  100  per  cent., 
and  less  perfect  conditions  are  correspondingly  reduced  in  score. 
The  plan  is  to  list  in  score  form  the  various  essential  elements, 
and  assign  a  number  of  points  to  each  in  proportion  to  its  impor- 
tance in  the  ideal.  For  example,  score  cards  for  testing  bread  are 
used  in  schools  and  in  county  fairs.  Score  cards  have  been  widely 
used  for  tests  of  dairies  and  in  agricultural  experiment  stations. 
Recent  use  has  been  made  of  them  in  scoring  restaurants,  housing 
conditions,  etc. 

While  little  has  been  done  by  the  housewife,  largely  because 
each  home  has  been  thought  such  an  individual  problem,  she  may 
with  profit  make  a  test  score  card  for  herself.  Examples  are  given 
below  which  might  be  modified  to  be  fitted  to  her  use. 


14  HOUSEWIFERY 

KITCHEN  SCORE  CARD 

Location  : 

Exposure    ......................................  5 

Place  in  house   .................................  5         10 

Plan: 

Size    ..........................................  5 

Proximity  to  cellar,  pantry,  dining  room  ..........  5 

Division  of  space  for  work  .......................  5 

Window  arrangement  ...........................  5 

Closets  ........................................  5         25 

Interior  finish  : 

Floor-material    .................................  10 

Wall-material   ..................................  3 

Color    .....................................  2         15 

Sanitation  : 

Ventilation    ....................................  5 

Cleanliness    ....................................  5         10 

Equipment: 

Choice  of  —  for  efficiency  .....................  10 

Arrangements  — 

Working  centers  ............................  5 

Grouped  utensils   ...........................  5 

Routing    ...................................  5 

Condition    ....................  .  ................  10 

Height  of  working  surfaces  .......................  5         40 

Total  .....................................  100 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  GARMENTS 

Style  : 

Appropriate  for  purpose   ........................  5 

Appropriate  for  person    .........................  5 

Material: 

Color    .........................................  5 

Kind  ..........................................  10 

Amount    .......................................  5 

Trimming    .....................................  5 

Form  : 

Conformation  to  figure  .........................  9 

in  8ha          or  cutti"g  ................  16 


Workmanship  : 

Uniformity    ....................................  10 

Seams    .......................................  .  10 

Stitching   ......................................  10 

Finish    ........................................  10 


Total    .  100 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS 


15 


Organization. — In  this  business  of  housekeeping,  the  house- 
wife must  learn  to  organize.  In  business  one  of  <the  most  important 
principles  of  organization  is  a  definite  plan  of  work.  This  is  just 
as  necessary  for  the  housewife  in  organizing  and  arranging  the 
affairs  of  her  household  as  for  the  business  man. 

Schedules:  As  the  housewife  becomes  more  and  more  proficient, 
she  is  better  able  to  map  out  working  schedules  or  plans  for  various 
tasks  about  the  house.  No  one  knows  how  much  time  to  plan  for 
a  task  until  one  has  done  it,  and  it  is  by  just  such  planning  and 
then  checking  of  the  plan  by  doing,  that  the  housewife  becomes  a 
better  business  manager  both  of  her  own  time  and  of  her  household 
employee  if  she  has  one. 

Schedule  Without  Help. — The  housewife  without  employed 
help  has  duties  so  varied  that  they  are  difficult  to  reduce  to  an 
exact  program,  or  schedule.  The  exact  duties  and  the  amount  of 
time  each  will  require  will  vary  according  to  such  conditions  as: 
life  in  city  or  in  country ;  house  or  apartment  living ;  size  of  family 
and  ages  of  children ;  income  available ;  etc.  The  following  schedule 
is  an  estimate  indicating  the  kinds  of  duties  and  the  approximate 
amount  of  time  necessary  for  each  in  a  household  where  the  mother 
does  all  the  work : 


Kind  of  work 

Hours  each  day 
for  regularly  recur- 
ring tasks 

Occasional 
additional  hours 
per  week 

Food  work 

4-  6 

2-  4 

Laundry  —  washing 

3-  5 

ironing  

4-  6 

Care  of  clothing 

1-  4 

House  care,  cleaning,  etc.        

1-  2 

4 

Children  and  miscellaneous         

2-  3 

2 

Management,  accounts,  planning  

1-  3 

Total 

7-11 

17-28 

hrs.  per 
day  and 

additional 
hrs.  per  week 

If  the  tasks  in  the  second  column  are  distributed  through  the 
week,  an  average  of  two  to  four  hours  a  day  would  be  called  for,  in 
addition  to  the  seven  to  eleven  hours  for  regular  daily  tasks  of  the 
household.  This  means  a  nine-  to  fifteen-hour  work  day  for  the 


16 


HOUSEWIFERY 


woman  who  does  all  her  own  work.  In  such  a  'household  it  is  very 
important  for  the  housewife  to  have  a  daily  schedule  of  special 
tasks:  washing  day  (Tuesday  is  better  than  Monday);  ironing 
day;  baking  day;  cleaning  days;  mending  day.  Some  items  of 
work,  for  example,  cleaning  of  silver,  may  well  be  brought  in  only 


WASH 

PfifPARE 

DISHK 

CARE  OF 

AND  siavi 

CARE  Of 

O/W/VG 

MEALS 

CH/LDREN 

ROOM 

*CHILDREN  SHOULD  HAV£ A 
PART  IN THIS  SCHEDULE 


ONE  AFfflffOOH 
AM)  E.VM//VG 
£ACH  W£EX 

ALTffiWf  SUNWS 

ALL    TIME 
OKfif 

8  HO  UPS 
f>£ff  DAY 

FIG.  8. — Chart  showing  duties  of  the  housewife  and  maid  and  their  relationship.     Such  a 
plan  adds  to  the  ease  of  checking  up  work  schedules. 

once  in  two  weeks.  It  is  also  important  for  her  to  consider  what 
work  she  can  hire ;  for  example,  the  family  washing  done  by  rough- 
dry  method  at  pound  rates. 

Schedules  with  Employed  Help  (Figs.  8  and  9). — The  house- 
wife may  list  duties  for  which  she  is  responsible,  and  plan  how  and 
when  she  will  do  them;  if  she  employs  one  or  more  maids>  the 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS 


17 


greater  the  need  for  being  able  to  present  to  them  a  similar  list  of 
duties.  In  making  out  the  schedule  she  must  take  into  account 
the  number  of  rooms  in  the  house,  the  size  of  the  family,  the  num- 
ber of  guests,  outside  assistance  (in  washing,  etc.),  days  off  of 
helpers,  etc.  A  good  way  to  begin  would  be  to  list  regular  duties 
for  every  day  in  the  week,  such  as  cooking,  washing  dishes,  bed 
making,  and  dusting.  The  next  thing  is  to  note  special  cleaning 


House  w//e 

\ 

Ma 

Supefvts/w 

Mend/ny 

Core  of    y. 
Children 

1 

/sr  f/njo/oyee 

2nd  Emp/oyee 

T 

Daily  Duties 

\Weekly  Dut/es\ 

Da//y  Duties 

\WeeMy  Duf/es  \ 

1          1 

\          \ 

1 

\ 

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PffEMfiE 
fOOD 

CL£AN         MAff£ 
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IVOAH 

iHTJMrfi   CLEAN 
CftUfl    \\\HM>smo* 

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SfW/Cf 
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Ousr 

CLEAN 
BATH 
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sweep 
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ROOMS 

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USED 

ROOMS 

\WSTIM 
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SfffVfftfALS 
ONE  DAY  A  Wff/f 
«  EMfL  OY£E  ASSISTING 

Assisr 

IN  CARE  OF 
CHILDREN 

0 
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f/fffMf  HEALS 
VEDA/AWEEM 
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1 

ONE  DAY  MR  W££/f 
(AFTER  LUNCH  TO 
NEXT  BREAKFAST) 
ALTERNATE  SUNDAYS 

ALL  T/ME 
OVEf?  8 
HOURS  PER  DAY 

\ 
1 

/ 

WfOWflEfl  WEEK 
AmftLL/HCH  TV 

NEXT  BREAK/HST) 

\LTEffMTE  SL//VEMKS 

ALL  T/ME 
HOL/ffS  PER  DAY 

*  CHILDREN  SHOULD  HAVE  A 
PART  IN  THIS  SCHEDULE 
FIG.  9. — Chart  showing  a  larger  organization  as  needed  for  two  maids. 

on  certain  days  every  week,  and  special  cleaning  on  certain  days  every 
other  week.  If  this  is  done,  there  can  be  schedules  so  that  there 
will  be  an  equul  amount  of  cleaning  every  week.  It  is  desirable 
that  children  have  small  household  tasks  and  these  too  should  be 
brought  into  the  plans. 

With  either  schedule,  apportion  the  work  so  that  no  day  is 
overcrowded,  so  that  rest  periods  are  possible  for  one  or  both  help- 
ers. It  can  be  done — here  is  where  the  housewife's  knowledge  of 
the  time  required  for  each  task  is  reflected  in  the  organization. 


18 


HOUSEWIFERY 
Hou  r        Scr  //ce- 


Fo*      Pr  a  fe  SS  ioTta.(    fc 

/ 

V     hour   service.  \      -S  hoi*.* 


TV 
f  hour   Service- 


Ala.  ids. 

Aou.r   SCYvtCe. 


7  Afl  -  II AA 


7  Art-  Hft-t  S  fi/l- 


tt»*.r 


A  B  C 

FIG.  10.— Chart  showing  time  of  hour  service.  Today  when  many  housewives  axe 
having  hour  service  instead  of  week  service,  such  a  chart  is  of  great  help,  especially  when 
of  work6  8CVeral  m  service-  Each  broken  vertical  black  line  represents  one  person's  hours 

One  way  to  arrange  work  to  advantage  is  as  follows : 
Each  week  clean  rooms  used  most. 
Once  in  two  weeks  clean  silver. 


HOUSEWIFERY  AS  A  BUSINESS  19 

Once  in  two  weeks  (alternate  with  cleaning  silver)  clean  the 
rooms  used  least. 

Should  weekly  cleaning  for  each  part  be  demanded,  either  an  out- 
side helper  would  have  to  be  employed,  or  the  housewife  assist  in 
doing  some  of  the  work  herself. 

This  is  possible  by  her  taking  as  her  task  that  part  of  the 
work  that  she  does  well  or  the  maid  does  poorly,  making  special 
desserts,  salads,  breads  and  cakes,  or  each  day  doing  the  beds  and 
dusting,  leaving  only  the  cooking  and  general  cleaning  for  the  maid. 
If  there  is  much  entertaining  one  can  hardly  expect  the  one  maid 
to  do  everything. 

Hour  Service. — Hour  service,  that  is,  bringing  in  of  a. hired 
worker  for  certain  hours  only,  has  much  in  its  favor  for  both  mis- 
tress and  maid.  For  the  mistress,  the  expense  is  much  less  because 
there  is  no  expense  of  food  for  the  help,  although  perhaps  the  rate 
per  hour  iseems  high.  The  arrangement  is  more  like  the  store  or 
factory  with  regular  hours,  and  after  workhours  freedom  to  do 
as  one  pleases.  The  type  of  worker  is  more  of  the  office  type,  supe- 
rior in  that  she  has  more  education,  greater  possibilities  for  intelli- 
gent organization  of  work  and  cooperation  with  her  employer.  For 
the  maid,  the  time  demanded  for  work  is  specified  and  any  extra 
time  is  paid  for  as  an  extra. 

On  the  accompanying  charts  arrangements  of  hours  for  different 
situations — the  one-maid  household  and  the  two-maid  household — 
are  presented.  Possible  arrangements  of  hours  for  part  time  serv- 
ice are  presented  in  chart  form  in  Fig.  10.  A  shows  an  arrange- 
ment for  a  four-hour  per  day  service — from  eight  to  ten,  and  from 
five-thirty  to  seven-thirty  in  the  evening;  B  shows  an  arrangement 
for  five  hours  of  service — seven-thirty  to  nine-thirty  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  from  five  o'clock  to  eight  in  the  evening ;  C  illustrates  two 
eight-hour-day  plans  for  two  maids  in  a  household,  with  two  different 
arrangements  of  hours  which  give  each  maid  eight  hours  of  work, 
and  also  time  off  every  day. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1 .  Draw  two  plans — of  your  own  kitchen  and  one  other  you  know.    Compare 

them  from  the  viewpoint  of  ease  of  doing  work. 

2.  With  the  plan  of  your  own  kitchen,  trace  by  dotted  lines  the  journeys 

taken  in  making  apple  sauce  'and  preparing  for  serving. 

3.  Modify  the  plan  of  your  kitchen  so  that  it  will  be  a  workshop  with  few 

steps  and  lessened  labor. 


20  HOUSEWIFERY 

4.  Make  a  score  card  for  washing  dishes. 

5.  Discuss  ways  in  which  home  management  and  office  management  may 

be  alike.    Ways  in  which  they  must  be  unlike. 

6.  In   your    housekeeping,    how   many   ways   have   you    found   that   "  your 

head  may  save  your  heels  ?  " 

7.  Given  ten  dollars  to  spend,  what  books  would  you  buy  for  a  housewife's 

library  ? 

REFERENCES 

ANDREWS,  B.  R.,  EDUCATION  FOE  THE  HOME.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

Bulletin  No.  36. 
BARKER,  HELENE,  WANTED  A  YOUNG  WOMAN  TO  DO  HOUSEWORK.     Moffat, 

Yard  &  Co. 
BARROWS,  ANNA,  FARM  KITCHEN  AS  A  WORKSHOP.     U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  607. 
BROADHURST,   JEAN,   HOME  AND   COMMUNITY  HYGIENE.     J.   B.   Lippincott 

Company. 

CAMPBELL,  HELEN,  HOUSEHOLD  ECONOMICS.     G.  P.  Putnam  &  Co. 
CHILD,  G.  B.,  THE  EFFICIENT  KITCHEN.    McBride,  Nast  &  Co. 
DODD,  KATHARINE,  HEALTHFUL  FARM  HOUSE.    Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 
DONHAM,  AGNES,  MARKETING  AND  HOUSEWORK.    Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
FREDERICK,  CHRISTINE,  THE  NEW  HOUSEKEEPING.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
GILBRETH,  FRANK,  MOTION  STUDY.     D.  Van  Nostrand  Co. 
KINNE,  HELEN,  and  COOLEY,  ANNA,  HOME  AND  FAMILY.    Macmillan  Co. 

KlTTREDGE,  MABEL  H.,  THE  HOME  AND   ITS   MANAGEMENT.       Century   Co. 

RICHARDSON,  BERTHA  J.,  THE  WTOMAN  WHO  SPENDS.     Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 

TABER,  C.  W.,  THE  BUSINESS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

TALBOT,  MARION,  THE  MODERN  HOUSEHOLD.    Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 

TARBELL,  IDA,  THE  BUSINESS  OF  BEING  A  WOMAN.    Macmillan  Co. 

TAYLOR,  FREDERICK  W.,  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT.  Harper 
&  Bros. 

TERRILL,  BERTHA,  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT.  American  School  of  Home 
Economics. 

THOMPSON,  C.  BERTRAND,  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MAN- 
AGEMENT. Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 

U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS,  MATERIALS  FOR  .  THE  HOUSEHOLD,  Circular 
No.  70. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI,  FARM  KITCHEN.  Agricultural  Extension  Service, 
Circular  No.  12. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS,  THE  PLANNING  OF  SIMPLE  HOMES.    Circular  No.  39. 

WADHAMS,  CAROLINE  R.,  SIMPLE  DIRECTIONS  SERIES  (for  waitress,  cham- 
bermaid, nurse,  cook,  butler,  laundress).  Longmans,  Green  Co. 

WHITE,  CHARLES,  SUCCESSFUL  HOMES  AND  How  TO  BUILD  THEM.  Mac- 
millan. 

WILBUR,  MARY,  EVERYDAY  BUSINESS  FOR  WOMEN.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

YOUNG,  MRS.  H.  B.,  PLANNING  THE  HOME  KITCHEN.  Cornell  University, 
Bulletin  No.  108. 


CHAPTER  II 

PLUMBING 
WATER  SUPPLY— HOUSEHOLD  WASTE— PLUMBING  FIXTURES 

THE  convenience  of  good  plumbing  is  such  an  accepted  fact  to- 
day that  the  question  in  town  or  city  is  not  whether  we  can  have 
plumbing  but  what  plumbing  do  we  need  in  a  given  house.  In  the 
open  country,  because  of  the  lack  of  an  adequate  water  supply  under 
pressure,  and  because  of  the  expense  of  installing  the  various  pipes 
and  connections  required  for  bringing  water  and  carrying  away 
waste,  the  problem  is,  How  can  a  single  house  supply  its  own 
system  ? 

A  system  of  waste  disposal  by  running  water  is  still  unusual 
in  the  country.  As  the  study  of  sanitation  goes  on,  however,  various 
systems  are  worked  out,  so  simple  and  inexpensive  that  they  can 
be  introduced  into  small  rural  homes,  and  opportunities  are  thus 
given  for  every  home  to  have  some  improved  plumbing  system.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  architect  and  the  builder  to  introduce  the  most 
modern  system  and  the  best  materials  appropriate  to  a  given  house, 
while  the  housekeeper  should  give  intelligent  cooperation  in  direct- 
ing the  spacing  of  tubs  and  sinks  so  that  they  will  give  the  best 
service  and  get  the  best  light.  She  is  the  one  who  should  decide 
the  quality  of  installation,  whether  convenience  and  efficiency  are 
served  equally  by  less  expensive  fixtures  so  that  funds  may  be  avail- 
able for  extra  basins  and  lavatories.  If  a  houseworker  is  to  be 
employed,  her  quarters  should  be  provided  with  proper  plumbing. 
In  the  farm  home  where  the  hired  man  must  be  cared  for,  separate 
accommodations  for  him,  a  lavatory,  at  least,  are  more  and  more 
being  included  in  plumbing  installation. 

The  first  question  in  establishing  a  plumbing  system  is  how  to 
get  the  water;  the  next,  the  kind  of  water;  and  then  follows  the 
question  of  what  to  do  with  waste  water  after  it  is  used.  Sewage 
disposal  is  thus  a  large  problem  in  the  plumbing  situation. 

21 


22  HOUSEWIFERY 

WATER  SUPPLY 

W^ater  supply  in  the  city  is  taken  as  such  a  matter  of  course 
that  many  persona  never  think  to  ask,  even,  from  where  or  how  it 
comes,  but  just  accept  it.  The  country  dweller  is  usually  not  so 
fortunate,  unless  he  lives  close  to  some  town  or  city  and  is  able 
to  secure  connection  with  its  water  supply. 

Water  must  be  pure  in  order  to  safeguard  health.  In  purchas- 
ing a  residence,  one  should  investigate  the  purity  of  the  water  in 
that  neighborhood,  its  degree  of  hardness,  and  the  kind  of  minerals 
present  in  it.  In  choosing  a  new  source  of  water  supply  the  greatest 
care  must  be  taken  to  get  -pure  water  and  to  keep  it  free  from  con- 
tamination. The  water  which  is  chosen  for  drinking  purposes 
should  be  carefully  examined  by  an  expert  before  being  piped  to 
the  house.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  send  a  sample  of  water  to  be 
examined  but  an  expert  should  personally  inspect  the  source  of 
supply  and  the  surrounding  ground  so  as  to  discover  possibilities 
of  contamination  if  they  exist. 

Kinds  of  Water. — The  chief  sources  of  water  for  private  sys- 
tems are  rain  or  roof  water,  wells,  and  springs.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  water,  "  hard  "  water  which  has  certain  "  salts  "  in  solu- 
tion, and  "  soft "  water.  Soft  water  is  free  from  these  salts  and 
forms  a  suds  with  soap  easily  and  quickly.  Rain  water,  which 
is  not  necessarily  pure  water,  is  the  best  illustration  of  soft  water, 
and  is  much  used  in  rural  districts  for  all  sorts  of  housework. 

Hard  water  is  either  permanently  hard  or  temporarily  hard. 
When  it  is  temporarily  hard  it  may  be  softened  by  boiling  such  as 
one  does  in  heating  wash  water  or  in  boiling  water  for  vegetables. 
The  reason  boiling  softens  this  water  is  that  the  mineral  matter  is 
held  in  the  water  in  the  form  of  carbonates,  and  the  boiling  drives  off 
carbon,  dioxide,  and  in  so  doing  the  hardness  of  the  water  is 
"  broken  "  and  the  lime  is  deposited  asi  often  seen  in  the  teakettle. 

There  are  processes  for  precipitating  the  mineral  water.  The 
carbonates  are  carbonates  of  chalk  or  magnesia,  and  a  little  lime 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  to  every  gallon  of  the  "  hard  " 
water,  will  soften  the  water  for  drinking  purposes.  The  chemical 
action  precipitates  the  magnesia  or  lime  in  an  insoluble  form.  To 
make  lime  water  for  softening  " temporarily  hard"  water  use  a 
lump  of  good  stone  lime  about  the  size  of  ap  egg  to  two  quarts 
of  water.  Let  the  lime  settle  and  throw  off  the  first  water.  Add 


PLUMBING  23 

a  second  water,  being  careful  to  mix  thoroughly,  let  stand  and  settle 
again,  and  use  the  clear  top  liquid.  The  residue  of  slaked  lime 
may  be  used  again,  by  adding  water. 

Permanently1  hard  water  contains  lime  in  the  form  of  chlorides 
and  sulphides,  and  washing  soda  or  soap  will  soften  the  water.  This 
method  of  softening  is  of  course  of  service  only  in  case  the  water 
is  used  for  washing.  Either  soap  or  washing  soda  may  be  used 
in  hard  water  for  washing  dishes.  It  is  not  possible  to  give  a  defi- 
nite proportion  because  the  degree  of  hardness  varies  greatly  in 
different  waters.  Scraps  of  soap  dissolved  in  a  jar  of  water  will 
make  a  soap  solution  which  if  poured  into  the  water  will  soften  it 
for  washing  purposes.  The  soda  should  be  kept  in  solution  so  as  to 
be  ready  for  dish  washing,  scrubbing,  or  washing  clothes.  Make 
the  washing  soda  solution  by  filling  a  quart  or  two-quart  glass 
jar  with  hot  water  and  putting  into  it  all  the  soda  that  will  dis- 
solve. Use  about  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  this  dissolved 
soda  to  the  amount  of  water  in  a  dish  pan  or  one-half  cup  to  one 
cup  in  a  washtub  of  water.  Hot  water  put  on  soda  crystals  will 
dissolve  them  quickly  and  easily  so  there  is  no  excuse  for  using  it 
undissolved ;  social  must  be  dissolved  for  washing  clothes.  A  wash- 
ing soda  is  purchasable  to-day  in  powder  form  for  dish  washing 
and  laundering,  which  is  instantly  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  is 
not  as  caustic  as  ordinary  soda  and  is  consequently  less  harmful 
to  the  gilt  of  dishes  and  to  the  fabric  of  clothes. 

For  laundry  purposes  a  combined  method  of  softening  may  be 
used.  Heat  one  pound  of  soap  in1  four  gallons  of  water  over  a  low 
fire,  then  add  one  pound  of  soda.  This  will  make  a  good  soap  solu- 
tion for  soaking  clothes  and  washing  where  the  water  is  too  hard  for 
good  work.  The  scum  from  hard  water  and  soap  is  called  lime  soap 
and  if  allowed  to  settle  on  the  clothes  produces  streaks  which  require 
a  great  deal  of  soap  to  soften  them,  and  sometimes  in  extreme 
cases  kerosene  is  needed. 

"  Hard  water  soaps "  are  available,  the  formula  of  which  is 
adjusted  to  meet  different  types  of  waters  in  different  localities. 

Rain  water  or  roof  water  is  the  softest  and  most  suitable  water 
available  for  toilet  and  laundry  purposes,  but  unless  the  collecting 
of  rain  water  is  done  under  close  supervision  the  water  may  be 
most  impure.1  Rain  water  for  household  use  is  best  stored  in  con- 
tainers called  cisterns  dug  into  the  earth  or  built  in  the  cellar. 


24 


HOUSEWIFERY 


The  first  fall  of  rain  not  only  washes  the  air  of  its  impurities  but 
also  the  buildings  of  their  dirt.  To  keep  rain  water  in  good  con- 
dition, first,  have  a  cut-off  in  the  pipe  so  that  the  first  fall  of 
rain  (for  half  an  hour)  may  be  prevented  from  going  into  the 
cistern;  second,  as  an  extra  precaution,  the  water  on  its  journey 
from  the  roof  to  the  cistern  may  be  led  through  a  filter  which  may 
be  a  hogshead  filled  with  gravel  or  small  stones  sometimes  mixed 
with  pieces  of  charcoal.  In  this  way  the  water  is  filtered  as  it 
passes  through  the  barrel  to  go  into  the  cistern. 


FIG.  11. — This  pump  could  easily  have  been  placed  near  the  sink  in   the  kitchen.     It 
would  have  saved  much  work. 

Water  'Storage. — Cisterns  should  be  bricked  or  cemented  on 
all  sides  so  that  the  water  in  storage  will  be  kept  free  from  dirt 
and  contamination.  A  cistern,  like  any  other  water  container, 
needs  to  be  cleaned  occasionally.  The  best  time  to  do  this  is  just 
before  a  usual  rainy  season  when  there  is  a  possibility  of  its  being 
filled  immediately,  because  if  one  is  dependent  on  cistern  water  it 
is  a  great  handicap  to  have  the  cistern  emptied  for  cleaning.  The 
aeration  from  chain  or  bucket  pumps  keeps  cistern  water  in  much 
better  condition  than  with  a  less  active  pump,  like  the  piston  pump. 

Wells  like  cisterns  are  home  necessities  which  must  be  most 


PLUMBING  25 

carefully  built  and  supervised.  The  health  of  the  family  depends 
upon  where  they  are  located,  how  they  are  built,  and  from  what 
source  they  are  filled.  Cisterns  are  filled  from  roof  water.  Wells 
are  filled  from  springs  or  underground  streams  of  water.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  wells :  the  driven  or  drilled  well,  such  as  an  arte- 
sian well,  and  dug  wells.  Driven  or  drilled  wells  are  made  by  a 
closed  iron  pipe  being  driven  down  for  varying  distances,  usually 
fifty  feet  or  more,  and  sometimes  as  in  deep  artesian  wells  several 
hundred  feet,  through  many  layers  of  rock,  to  find  water  which 
has  filtered  its  way  down.  This  filtering  tends  to  purify  the  water 
so  that  a  deep  driven  well  if  entirely  free  from  any  surface  con- 
tamination gives  good  water. 

Dug  wells  are  cemented  or  stone  bowls  which  gather  and  hold 
water  that  runs  in  from  underground  streams  or  springs.  The 
same  general  conditions  should  be  planned  for  with  the  dug  well 
as  with  a  driven  well.  All  wells  are  influenced  by  the  surround- 
ings, so  for  that  reason  be  sure  that  no  cesspool,  privy  or  drainage 
of  any  kind  can  reach  the  spring  that  feeds  the  well,  or  can  seep 
in  at  the  top  of  the  well.  Do  not  be  satisfied  in  thinking  it  is 
pure;  have  it  analyzed — a  state  department  will  do  it  free  in  some 
states;  and  have  an  expert  check  up  possible  contamination  by 
drainage  into  the  water  supply. 

Pumps. — Water  being  present,  the  next  question  is,  How  may 
it  be  made  accessible  to  the  worker  ?  Some  form  of  pump  is  neces- 
sary to  raise  water  from  a  lower  level  to  the  point  where  it  is 
needed.  There  are  several  types  of  pumps — the  piston  pump,  chain 
and  bucket,  force  pump,  and  power  pumps  operated  by  windmill, 
hydraulic  ram,  gas  engine,  or  electric  motor. 

The  piston  pump  has  almost  everywhere  replaced  "  the  old  oaken 
bucket "  which  was  operated  on  a  long  sweep,  or  with  a  rope  and 
windlass;  the  iron  piston  pump  (Figs.  11,  12)  is  easier  to  operate 
and  delivers  water  more  rapidly.  When  the  water  is  low  in  the  well 
or  reservoir  it  is  necessary  to  start  or  prime  the  pump  by  pouring 
down  enough  water  to  fill  the  cylinder.  So  long  as  the  water  is 
deep  enough  to  have  it  rise  in  the  pipe,  the  pipe,  of  course,  has 
water  in  it  and  is  ready  to  deliver  water.  The  piston  is  at  the 
top  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  beginning  stroke  raising  the  handle 
results  in  forcing  the  piston  down  ( 1 ) .  The  valve  in  the  piston  opens 
and  lets  the  water  pass  into  the  space  above  it.  When  the  piston 


26 


HOUSEWIFERY 


is  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  the  water  will  be  above  it  (2,  3) .  The 
up-journey  of  the  piston  forces  the  water  into  the  spout  (4). 

Bringing  the  piston  pump  indoors  and  connecting  it  with  a 
sink  is  one  great  improvement.  It  need  not  be  placed  directly 
over  the  well,  as  the  pump  will  draw  the  water  along  a  horizontal 
line  as  well  as  about  thirty  feet  vertically. 

Chain  and  bucket  pumps  operate  by  means  of  a  crank  handle. 
The  water  is  elevated  through  a  pipe  by  small  buckets  which  are 


FIG.  12. — Piston  pump. 

fastened  on  an  endless  chain.  These  buckets  are  filled  on  their 
upward  road  to  deliver  water;  if  the  pumping  stops,  the  water 
left  drops  back  through  a  very  small  opening  in  each  of  the  buckets, 
thus  working  its  way  back  to  the  cistern  by  dropping  from  bucket 
to  bucket,  and  being  thoroughly  aerated  in  the  process.  (This  is 
the  same  principle  as  aerating  boiled  water  for  drinking  by  pouring 
the  water  several  times  from  one  pitcher  to  another.) 

Force  pumps  are  piston  pumps  (Fig.  13,  1  and  2),  which  deliver 
water  under  pressure  so  that  it  can  be  forced  through  a  pipe  to  some 
elevation  or  delivered  through  a  hose  for  garden  purposes.  By 
means  of  a  force  pump  elevated  tanks  in  the  attic  or  elsewhere  may 
be  filled,  and  so  make  possible  a  gravity  home  water  system. 


PLUMBING 


27 


Gravity  Water  System. — For  a  system  supplied  by  gravity 
from  a  spring  a  storage  tank  large  enough  to  hold  a  supply  for  two 
or  three  days  is  sufficient.  With  a  large  elevated  spring  the  tank 
may  be  dispensed  with.  In  order  to  provide  a  gravity  system,  with- 
out pumping,  the  spring  must  be  at  such  a  height  as  to  insure 
proper  pressure  to  make  the  water  flow  through  the  pipe  to  the 


FIG.  13. — Types  of  force  pu-mps.     1,  water  goes  out  on  the  down  stroke;  2,  water  goes  out 
on  both  up  and  down  strokes. 

house.  The  pressure  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  pipes,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  spring,  and  tihe  distance  of  the  spring  from  the  house. 
The  pipe  should  be  from  1%  to  2  inches  in  diameter  unless  from 
a  spring  at  great  elevation,  when  a  smaller  pipe  will  do. 

If  the  spring  is  located  below  the  house,  or  if  the  water  supply 
is  from  a  well,  the  water  must  "be  pumped  to  the  storage  tank. 
In  this  case  the  size  of  the  tank  depends  upon  how  often  the  owner 
wishes  to  pump.  The  water  may  be  pumped  by  hand  or  by  power. 
The  power  may  be  furnished  by  a  windmill,  gasoline  or  electric 
engine. 


28 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Pumping  by  Power. — The  windmill  is  a  wheel  revolved  by  the 
wind,  which  in  turn  operates  a  pump  or  other  device.  By  means  of 
a  windmill,  water  may  be  forced  into  a  tank,  and  there  stored  at 
such  an  elevated  height  as  to  produce  through  gravity  the  conven- 
ience of  a  water  system  in  all  parts  of  the  house  and  grounds.  The 
pressure  at  the  outlet  depends  upon  the  height  above  the  outlet  at 
which  the  tank  is  located. 

Hydraulic  Ram. — When  flowing  water,  with  a  fall,  is  available, 
a  hydraulic  ram  (Fig.  14)  may  be  used  to  force  water  to  a  level 
much  higher  than  the  source  of  the  supply.  For  example,  on  a 
farm,  the  water  from  a  brook  might  be  pumped  to  a  tank  situated 
on  a  high  piece  of  ground  and  then  distributed  by  gravity.  The 


Spring. 


FIG.  14. — Setting  of  hydraulic  ram. 

pumping  power  of  the  ram  is  derived  from  the  force  of  the  falling 
water.  For  example,  a  two-inch  stream  of  water  falling  a  few 
feet  into  the  ram  will  lift  a  three-fourth  inch  stream  of  water 
many  times  that  height  into  a  tank.  Such  rams  are  cheap  to  install 
and  cost  nothing  to  operate. 

Gasoline  engines  are  of  special  service  on  a  farm  for  power 
of  all  kinds,  including  in  the  house  the  operation  of  pumps,  wash- 
ing machines,  milk  separators,  etc.  In  thus  operating  a  pump, 
fuel  is  of  course  required  and  also  more  attention  than  for  a  wind- 
mill, but  the  volume  of  water  pumped  is  greater ;  and  when  a  storage 
tank  ihas  a  good  capacity  the  pumping  can  be  done  at  intervals 
according  to  the  amount  of  water  used.  A  1%-H.P.  gasoline  engine 
will  pump  about  5^  gallons  a  minute  250  feet  high;  it  can  be 
purchased  for  $35  to  $45. 

Electric  Pumps. — Where  electric  power  is  available  an  electric 
motor  may  be  installed  directly  connected  with  a  water  pump. 
Throwing  an  electric  switch  starts  the  pump  and  little  attention 
is  required. 


PLUMBING  29 

Tanks. — The  cheapest  form  of  tank  is  one  built  in  the  attic 
or  on  top  of  the  house.  Placing  the  tank  in  the  attic  overcomes 
the  possibility  of  freezing  but  introduces  the  danger  of  possible 
damage  from  leakage.  It  must  be  provided  with  a  "  clean  out " 
and  an  "overflow"  pipe  to  prevent  leakage  into  the  house.  This 
type  of  tank  is  often  built  on  a  separate  tower  outside  of  the  house 
and  is  sometimes  built  large  enough  to  supply  several  houses. 
Elevated  tanks  are  constructed  of  cedar  or  oak,  bound  with  metal 
bands,  and  are  often  copper  or  zinc-lined;  the  tank  should  be 
painted  to  prevent  its  rotting.  The  cost  of  complete  installation 
of  tanks  and,  pipes  is  small  in  amount  compared  with  the  conven- 
iences resulting  from  the  establishment  of  such  a  system.  From 
elevated  tanks  the  water  is  piped  to  the  various  fixtures  in  the  usual 
way,,  and  flows  by  gravity. 

Air  Pressure  Tank  System. — Another  tank  system  is  the  air 
pressure  tank  system.  This  system  includes  a  pumping  outfit  and  a 
steel  tank  located  in  the  cellar  and  so  constructed  that  two-thirds  of 
its  capacity  may  be  filled  with  water  pumped  in  against  the  pressure 
of  the  air  which  fills  the  other  one-third  of  the  tank ;  the  air  is,  com- 
pressed as  the  water  is  pumped  in  until  the  air  is  under  about  45 
pounds  pressure.  The  air  pressure  then  forces  the  water  through 
the  pipes  of  the  house. 

Installation  and  Care  of  Water  System. — In  case  the  water 
supply  system  is  to  be  used  for  the  summer  season  only,'  all  of  the 
piping  should  be  laid  on  such  grades  that  the  entire  system  can 
be  drained  in  the  fall,  thereby  preventing  freezing  and  destruction 
of  the  piping  system.  All  the  sewage  traps  in  a  summer  system 
should  be  drained  and  filled  with  oil. 

In  case  the  system  is  to  be  used  all  the  year  around,  every  part 
that  is  exposed,  the  piping,  tanks,  etc.,  should  be  made  frost-proof. 
Piping  is  made  frost-proof  by  laying  it  at  sufficient  distance  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  by  not  laying  it  in  the  outer  walls 
of  a  house.  Pipes  outside  the  house  which  are  not  buried  in  the 
earth  below  the  level  at  which  freezing  takes  place  (some  two  or 
three  feet  in  the  northern  states),  will  freeze  and  often  burst.  Stor- 
age tanks  must  be  enclosed  and  the  water  kept  sufficiently  warm 
to  prevent  freezing.  The  housewife's  responsibility  in  this  matter 
is  to  watch  the  original  installation  of  pipes.  Inside  pipes  are 
protected  from  freezing  by  not  allowing  rooms  to  get  too  cold. 


30 


HOUSEWIFERY 


However,  freezing  of  pipes  in  kitchen,  laundry,  or  in  any  room  not 
sufficiently  heated,  is  usually  so  slight  as  to  be  easily  thawed  out 
by  the  housewife. 

To  Thaw  Pipes. — Do  not  put  a. candle  under  the  pipe,  as  that 
would  cause  too  rapid  expansion,  and  probably  burst  the  pipe. 
Oloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  wrapped  like  a  bandage,  are  the 
safest  and  most  successful  means  of  opening  a  frozen  pipe.  Lead 
pipes  that  are  frozen  will  bulge  slightly.  Iron  pipes  will  not  show 
this  bulging.  A  pipe  once  thawed  out  may  be  kept  warm  by  stand- 
ing a  lighted  candle  nearby. 


FIG.  15. — Cut-off  for  main  water  supply  of  the  house. 

Water  Stop  Cock  and  Shut-off. — The  main  water  shut-off 
(Fig.  15)  in  houses  is  commonly  inside  the  foundation  or  cellar 
wall.  Be  careful  that  a  coal  bin  or  other  obstruction  is  not  put 
around  or  in  front  of  it.  This  is  the  direct  connection  with  the 
istreet  inflow  pipe,  and  from  this  radiates  all  the  water  piping 
through  the  houses.  The  main  thing  is  to  know  where  it  is,  and 
that  one  should  turn  it  off  in  case  of  a  leak  in  the  house ;  to  turn 
it  off  is  really  nothing  more  than  to  turn  a  faucet.  In  some  cases, 
the  turn-off  has  a  regular  faucet  handle,  in  other  cases  one  must 
use  a  wrench  to  turn  it.  There  is  usually  a  turn-off  in  the  cellar 
of  the  private  house,  which  the  housewife  should  ask  to  be  shown, 
if  she  does  not  already  know  its  location.  After  shutting  off,  the 
house  pipes  should  be  drained.  In  apartments  the  shut-off  is  often 
in  a  closet,  and  under  sinks  and  washbasins  the  more  modern  plumb- 
ing has  individual  shut-offs  for  each  such  item  of  equipment. 

To  close  the  house,  see  chapter  on  Storage,  page  232. 


PLUMBING  31 

HOUSEHOLD  WASTE 

Household  waste  is  of  two  kinds,  organic  and  inorganic.  Ashes, 
tin  cans,  and  bottles  are  typical  inorganic  refuse,  while  garbage  and 
sewage  are  the  chief  kinds  of  organic  waste. 

Inorganic  waste  accumulates  very  rapidly  and  must  be  removed. 
It  is  not  only  unsightly,  but  bottles  and  cans  almost  always  contain 
some  organic  matter  which  soon  ferments.  It  is  such  waste  that 
promotes  the  breeding  of  flies  and  vermin.  Sometimes  this  refuse 
is  thrown  into  empty  low  lots  to  act  as  a  filler,  but  such  ground  is 
thus  made  undesirable  for  housebuilding  until  sufficient  time  has 
elapsed  for  the  waste  organic  matter  in  this  refuse  entirely  to 
decompose. 

Organic  waste  includes  garbage  or  waste  food  materials  and 
human  waste,  or  excreta,  but  there  may  well  be  considered  with 
them  the  problem  of  water  waste,  since  human  waste  and  household 
water  form  the  sewage  problem  where  there  is  a  system  of  pipes 
for  running  water  and  pipes  for  waste  disposal  (Fig.  16)  and 
where  /such  a  piped  system  is  lacking,  the  sanitary  and  convenient 
disposal  of  human  waste  and  of  waste  water  is  a  very  important 
problem. 

Garbage  on  the  farm  should  be  used  as  feed  as  far  as  possible 
or  turned  into  fertilizer.  In  the  city  it  is  usually  hauled  away 
to  disposal  plants  because  of  increasing  success  in  rescuing  fats 
for  industrial  purposes,  bones  for  glue  and  fertilizer,  waste  food 
for  nitrogen  in  stock  feeding,  and  finally  materials  that  can  be 
used  as  fuel. 

Household  Water  Waste. — This  concerns  water  used  for  bath- 
ing, for  dishwashing,  for  laundering,  and  for  housecleaning.  If 
there  is  a  piped  system  it  goes  into  the  sewage.  In  the  absence  of 
a  plumbing  system,  all  household'  waste  water,  including  dishwater 
freed  from  food  particles,  can  be  led  by  means  of  a  pipe  from  the 
sink  to  a  garden  some  distance  away  from  the  house.,  This  water 
will  be  of  service  fertilizing  the  garden.  Such  a  sink  and  waste 
pipe  for  disposal  of  kitchen  water  should  be  installed  in  every 
house,  on  the  farm  or  elsewhere  as  a  minimum  convenience,  even 
if  it  is  not  possible  to  have  more  of  plumbing  and  a  running  water 
supply.  Be  sure  that  this  waste  water  flows  away  from  the  wells 
or  cisterns. 


32 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Vfeirr 


rTUBS 


rtesT-n. 


BASEMENT 


FIG.   16. — Sanitary  plumbing  stack. 


Wash,  water,  after 
laundering,  is  often  used 
in  the  farm  house,  where 
water  facilities  are  poor, 
for  scrubbing.  This  is 
good  use  provided  the 
water  is  clean  or  that 
the  floors  are  rinsed 
afterward.  The  soapy 
soiled  water  one  often 
sees  in  the  washtub  is 
not  clean  and  will  no 
longer  clean  other 
things.  The  floors 
washed  with  such  water 
soon  turn  yellow  or  gray 
and  often  are  slippery 
from  the  soap.  Fixed 
washtubs  can  be  in- 
stalled just  as  a  sink,  to 
be  emptied  through  a 
trough  or  pipe  which 
conducts  the  water  down 
into  the  garden  far 
enough  away  from  the 
house.  Clean  soapy 
water  is  a  good  disin- 
fectant and  if  poured  on 
plants  or  around  the 
roots  often  keeps  a  plant 
free  from  insects. 

Human  Waste. — 
The  best  method  of  sew- 
age disposal  is  through 
a  public  sewer  which  is 
conducted  to  a  com- 
munity rewage  disposal 
plant.  Where  there  is 
no  community  system, 


PLUMBING 


33 


the  best  methods  for  a  single  house  are  the  cesspool  and  septic  tank, 
and  of  these  the  latter  is  safer ;  both  of  these  require  running  water 
to  carry  off  the  waste ;  where  there  is  no  piped  water  supply,  human 
waste  is  cared  for  by  the  privy. 

Types  of  Privies. — The  simplest  method  of  disposal  of  human 
waste  is  by  the  earth  closet  (Fig.  17).     These  closets  or  privies 


VEWT/LATOft 


our  HOUSE 


F/LL  //V  W/TH 
'LINE  OR  CLAY 


FIG.  17. — Outdoor  privy  vault.    When  necessary,  the  superstructure  is  removed  and  put 

over  a  new  vault. 

should  be  dug  in  sandy  soil  in  such  a  position  in  relation  to  the 
house  and  water  supply  that  there  can  be  no  chance  whatever  of 
contamination.  Dry  loam  or  fine  sand  mixed  with  particles  of 
charcoal  or  lime  should  be  kept  in  a  box,  and,  each  person  using  the 
closet  should  he  taught  to  use  sand  or  loam  as  a  cover,  and  not  to 
throw  extra  water  into  the  closet.  The  bacteria  in  the  excreta 
decompose  the  wastes,  and  the  loam  absorbs  the  odor.  Besides 
the  danger  from  drainage,  one  meets  another  danger  quite  as  immi- 
nent and  serious,  that  is  the  contamination  from  flies.  All  waste 
vaults  such  as  privies  and  manure  piles,  should  be  screened  so  that 
the  access  of  flies  is  impossible. 
3 


34 


HOUSEWIFERY 


REMOVABLE 
RECEPTACLE 


LOAM 
COMPARTMENT 


FIGS.  18  and  19.— Two  forma  pf  earth  closets. 

When  the  closet  has  to  be  emptied  the  best  care  of  the  waste 
is  by  burying.  This  involves  another  big  question,  Where  and 
how  to  bury?  Where — how  far  away  from  the  house,  and  how— at 


PLUMBING 


35 


so  low  a  level  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  wastes  getting  into 
surface  water  or  into  the  water  supply?  This  becomes  an  indi- 
vidual question  answered  by  the  contour  of  the  land,  its  drainage, 
and  its  relationship  through  drainage  to  the  water  supply.  For 
convenience  and  protection,  the  closet  is  often  brought  too  near 
the  house,  but  that  is  better  decided  by  the  natural  drainage  from 
the  privy  and  how  it  affects  conditions  of  a  surrounding  and  lower 
level. 

Some  water  closets  are  built  of  the  type  of  drawer  containers 
(Figs.  18  and  19).     The  drawer  should  be  a  galvanized  iron  box 


Fia.  20.— Flush  closet. 

and  must  also  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  means  of  sand  and 
lime  and  charcoal. 

Another  method  is  to  build  a  water-tight  concrete  vault  and 
remove  the  superstructure  to  a  duplicate  vault  when  the  first  is 
filled,  being  careful  to  cover  the  abandoned  vault;  the  first  vault 
may  be  re-used  after  fermentation  has  destroyed  its  contents. 

Flush  Closets. — Flush  closets  are  of  course  the  modern  way  of 
caring  for  human  waste  where  there  is  a  piped  water  supply.  Flush 
closets  are  connected  with  the  water  system  of  the  house  and  should 
be  planned  to  have  a  free  flow  of  water  to  flush  waste  down  and 
out.  There  are  two  types  of  closets,  one  called  the  "  open  flush  " 
(Fig.  20),  and  the  other  called  the  "  siphon/'  Both  of  these  closetg 
are  to  have  connected  with  them  in  the  plumbing  an  efficient  water 
trap,  and  both  are  also  partial  traps  themselves,  because  they  always 
contain  water.  The  care  of  the  flush  closet  requires  not  only  that 
it  be  flushed  each  time  it  is  used,  but  that  it  be  so  flushed  as  to 


36 


HOUSEWIFERY 


insure  clean  water  not  only  in  the  bowl  of  the  closet  but  in  the  trap 
below.  Flush  closets  in  country  houses  are  emptied  into  septic 
tanks  or  cesspools,  and  those  in  city  dwellings  into  the  sewage 
system. 

For  cleaning  flush  closets,  see  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Care, 
page  258. 

Water  Traps. — Water  traps  are  bends  or  enlargements  in  waste 
pipes  which,  as  the  water  goes  down  the  pipe,  hold  the  last  lot  of 
water  so  that  water  constantly  stands  in  the  pipe,  sealing  it  against 
the  inflow  of  sewer  gas  through  the  pipe  into  the  house.  As  more 


RUNNING  TRAP 


S  TRAP 


HALF S  TRAP 


S    TRAP  WITH  VENT 
AND  CLEAN  OUT  HOLE 


S  TRAP  WITH  CLEAN 
OUT  HOLE  AND  COVER 


FIG.  21. — Types  of  traps. 

water  from  above  flows  into  the  pipe,  the  water  in  the  trap  over- 
flows off  down  the  pipe,  always  leaving  the  trap  level  full. 

The  common  forms  of  traps  (Fig.  21)  are  the  U-tube,  the  S, 
and  the  Half-S  traps. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  water  that  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  trap  after  the  use  of  the  sink,  tub,  or  flush  closet  ought  to 
be  clean  water,  otherwise  there  can  be  not  only  disagreeable  odors 
but  more  or  less  unhealthy  conditions  from  this  water  which  con- 
tains waste.  Let  it  be  the  housewife's  concern  to  teach  the  flooding 
of  all  traps  after  use.  Kitchen  sinks  are  often  gradually  stopped 


PLUMBING 


37 


up  because  of  the  grease  in  dishwater  cooling  and  hardening  on  the 
sides  of  the  pipes  and  trap.  Continued  repetition  of  this  naturally 
closes  the  trap  with  the  stoppage  of  grease.  This  causes  an  expense 
which  could  easily  have  been  warded  off  had  the  sink  after  every 
dishwashing  had  a  thorough  flooding,  before  this  grease  had  hard- 
ened, with  hot  water  which  would  have  melted  and  carried  off  the 
grease.  See  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Care,  page  266. 

Grease  traps  are  often  put  in  with  the  plumbing  'connection  in 
kitchen  sinks,  especially  in  large  hotel  or  institution  kitchens.   This 
grease  trap  (Fig.  22)  allows  a  storage 
of  grease  which  may  be  taken  out 
later  and  sold  to  the  soap  factory  or 
used  for  home-made  soap. 

Sewage  Disposal  Without 
Community  Sewers. — Where  run- 
ning water  is  available,  but  with  no 
community  sewers,  a  single  house 
may  dispose  of  the  human  waste  and 
waste  water  by  running  its  own  sewer 
pipe  into  a  private  cesspool  or  septic 
tank.  This  requires  proper  provision 
of  water  traps,  and,  if  desired,  a 
grease  trap,  on  the  waste  water 
piping. 

Cesspools. — 'Cesspools  may  be 
built  some  thirty  feet  away  from  the 
house,  choosing,  if  possible,  a  sandy 
soil  for  the  outlet.  Cesspools  were  originally  built  by  making  a  well- 
like  cistern  (Fig.  23)  lined  with  wood  or  stone  which  was  to  receive 
the  waste  from  the  house ;  the  liquid  material  then  leached  through 
the  sandy  bottom,  and  the  solid  waste  remained  behind  to  purify 
itself  by  its  own  bacterial  action. 

The  cesspool  is  likely  to  become  a  constant  source  of  contamina- 
tion to  the  water  supply,  as  the  liquid  containing  organic  waste 
leaches  out  and  contaminates  the  surrounding  soil,  and  is  very  likely 
to  reach  the  well  or  cistern.  The  cesspool  may  also  become  a 
nuisance  by  overflowing,  if  the  soil  is  not  porous  enough  to  absorb 
the  liquid.  It  may  be  necessary  to  empty  out  the  cesspool  in  order 
to  remove  the  sediment  which  has  collected  in  too  great  amounts. 


FIG.  22. — Grease  trap.  Composed 
of  an  inner  chamber  into  which  the 
waste  water  and  grease  pass,  and  an 
outer  chamber  through  which  the  cold 
water  supply  for  the  house  flows.  The 
circulation  of  cold  water  around  the 
outside  chills  or  congeals  the  grease 
entering  into  the  inner  chamber;  the 
grease,  being  lighter  than  water, 
gathers  at  the  top  and  is  thus  pre- 
vented from  passing  through  the 
outlet. 


38 


HOUSEWIFERY 


The  frequency  with  which  this  must  be  done  depends  on  the  porosity 
of  the  soil;  sometimes  it  is  never  necessary. 

The  Septic  Tank  (Fig.  24)  is  a  more  satisfactory  method  of 
sewage  disposal.     This  tank  is  made  entirely  of  concrete,   is  box- 


FIG.  23. — Leaching  cess-pool. 


.' 

•h.«^.pi»;| 

I2SS^S15^3 

'.A, 

'.  V    . 

u 

ft~v. 

SCUrtBOJflfi 

J^ 

5TJ7 

1           ' 

\    \   * 

*! 

A 

^^_^f 

.^ 

* 

'a  ' 

jj 

•a 

2 

'&••?*•$"?' 

'^•^••".^^l  °-tt.  ^--V  A.'*-"- 

£ 

FIG.  24.— Septic  tank. 


shaped,  and  three  times  as  long  as  wide;  and  the  size  varies  with 
the  number  of  persons  living  in  the  house  with  which  the  tank  is 
connected,  and  also  depends  upon  whether  the  total  outflow  from 


PLUMBING  39 

the  house  passes  through  the  tank,  or  only  the  outflow  from  the 
closets. 

Assuming  that  no  water  is  used  during  the  eight  sleeping  hours, 
the  tank  is  made  of  such  a  size  as  to  hold  the  flow  during  eight 
hours,  the  entire  flow  passing  through  in  sixteen  hours;  that  is, 
the  tank  is  made  large  enough  to  hold  one-half  of  the  entire  quan- 
tity of  water  used  per  day.  For  example:  take  a  family  of  five. 
The  total  water  supply  should  be  100  gallons  per  person  per  day  or 
500  gallons  per  day.  If  the  entire  flow  passes  through  the  septic 
tank,  the  tank  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  half  this  quantity, 
or  250  gallons.  This  necessitates  a  tank  of  33%  cu.  ft.  capacity. 
If  the  outflow  only  from  the  closets  passes  through  the  tank,  then 
the  tank  need  be  only  large  enough  to  hold  10  gallons  per  person 
per  day,  or  for  a  family  of  five  large  enough  to  hold  50  gallons, 
or  about  7  cu.  ft. 

The  outflow  from  the  house  passes  through  a  pipe  6"  or  8" 
in  diameter  to  the  tank.  A  trap  should  be  placed  between  the  house 
and  the  tank  to  prevent  any  gas  passing  back  into  the  house.  The 
liquid  passes  into  the  first  compartment  of  the  tank,  where  much 
of  the  sediment  sinks  to  the  bottom,  then  up  over  the  partition  which 
is  built  just  higher  than  the  mouth  of  the  inlet  pipe.  In  the  second 
compartment  a  scum-board  is  placed  to  keep  back  any  scum  which 
rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquid.  The  outlet  pipe  should  have  an 
elbow  extending  down  about  8"  or  10"  below  the  surface.  The 
liquid  finally  passing  through  the  outlet  is  practically  clear  but  is 
not  purified.  A  man-hole  opening  is  constructed  partly  over  each 
of  the  two  compartments  so  that  in  case  of  necessity  the  tank  may 
be  opened  and  cleaned  out  and  the  sediment  removed  and  buried. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  sediment  every  six  months,  or 
so  little  sediment  may  accumulate  that  it  may  never  be  necessary 
to  remove  it,  depending  upon  the  length  of  time  the  house  is  used 
during  the  year. 

The  disposal  of  the  outflow  of  the  tank  is  very  important.  With 
the  proper  care  this  outflow,  together  with  the  outflow  from  the 
bathtubs,  sinks,  and  washtubs,  which  may  not  pass  through  the 
septic  tank,  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  irrigation  of  the  garden 
or  some  nearby  field.  The  liquid  may  be  used  in  irrigation  either 
by  surface  irrigation,  which  is  accomplished  by  means  of  ditches 
through  the  cultivated  area;  or  by  subsoil  irrigation,  in  which  case 


40  HOUSEWIFERY 

the  outflow  is  led  through  the  cultivated  area  by  means*  of  drain 
pipes,  having  open  joints  underneath  the  furrows.  In  both  meth- 
ods the  results  are  best  accomplished  in  porous  soils.  If  the  soil 
is  not  porous  more  active  cultivation  must  be  carried  on  to  have 
the  liquid  absorbed. 

The  question  of  whether  all  the  water  waste  of  the  house  should 
pass  through  the  septic  tank  or  not  is  a  matter  of  opinion  among 
sanitary  experts.  If  all  the  water  passes  through,  the  tank  must 
be  made  larger  and  there  is  a  greater  amount  of  liquid  contaminated 
by  organic  matter.  Another  disadvantage  of  having  all  the  waste 
pass  through  the  septic  tank  is  that  the  grease  from  the;  kitchen 
sink  is  likely  to  become  a  nuisance  by  forming  a  film  of  grease  on 
the  tank  and  pipes  and  in  the  irrigation  ditches.  To  prevent  this 
a  grease  trap  should  be  installed  in  the  pipe  leading  from  the 
kitchen  sink,  and  all  water  run  through  it  into  the  septic  tank. 

When  one  realizes  the  seriousness  of  the  problem  of  the  care 
of  waste,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  the  septic  tank  is  very 
slight  in  comparison  with  the  cost  of  the  risk  involved  in  the  drain- 
age from  either  poorly  built  or  carelessly  operated  cesspools  and 
privies.  The  privy  must  be  kept  dry  so  that  the  bacterial  action 
will  destroy  the  material  without  the  risk  of  seepage  into  the 
water  supply. 

PLUMBING  FIXTURES 

All  metal  fixtures  should  be  of  good  quality,  the  poorer  quality 
while  cheaper  at  first  will  require  much  care  and  soon  will  require 
refinishing.  While  the  best  quality  for  bathroom  fixtures  is  silver- 
plated,  the  material  usually  chosen  is  first  quality  nickel,  but  to 
keep  this  in  good  condition  it  should  be  cleaned  by  carefully  wash- 
ing and  wiping  dry,  and  as  far  as  possible  cleaned  without  the 
use  of  strong  metal  polishes.  Nickel  is  a  coating  on  another  metal, 
and  naturally  the  friction  as  well  as  the  chemical  action  of  strong 
cleansers  will  remove  this  surface  finish. 

Faucets. — For  the  kitchen  and  laundry  brass  fixtures  are  usu- 
ally chosen.  They  will  oxidize,  forming  a  green  deposit  of  copper 
oxide,  so  that  brass  fixtures  will  need  a  good  deal  of  care.  Of  the 
metal  faucets,  then,  nickel  kept  free  from  chemicals  and  scratchy 
cleaners  will  give  the  best  results  at  a  medium  first  cost. 

Enamel  for  handles  is  extensively  used  in  the  more  modern 


PLUMBING  41 

plumbing  fixtures,  first  gaining  use  in  connection  with  the  sanitary 
outfit  required  in  hospitals.  The  great  advantage  is  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  extra  work  of  polishing  metals,  the  great  disadvantage  is 
its  cost.  This  may  be  more  than  "balanced  by  the  saving  in  money 
and  work  on  a  metal  handle.  They  are  more 
expensive  than  nickel  and  less  so  than  silver- 
plated  handles. 

The  choice  of  faucet  is  an  important  item. 
Usually  a  screw  (Fig.  25)  or  level  faucet  that 
stays  open,  until  closed,  is  preferred,  but 
where  water  rates  are  high,  spring  faucets 
that  stay  open  only  so  long  as  held  open  may 
sometimes  be  chosen. 

Foot-pressure  faucets  are  used  in  cases  FIG.  25.— A  typical  spigot, 
where  the  hand  must  be  free  for  other  work 

or  where  it  is  a  disadvantage  to  touch  a  common  handle  such  as  in 
operating  rooms  in  hospitals.  This  device  would  be  of  great  con- 
venience in  a  kitchen  where  spring  faucets  are  to  be  installed  to  save 
water,  because  it  is  a  great  hindrance  to  work  at  the  sink  and  have  to 
hold  the  faucets  open. 

Gloose-neck  faucets  (Fig.  26),  those  with  a  high  curved  dis- 
charge pipe,  are  most  useful  in  the  pantry  to  assist,  in  filling  water 
bottles  or  pitchers. 

As  dishwashing  devices  (Fig.  27)  and  machines  and  washing 
machines  are  being  more  and  more  used,  extra  faucets  which  are 
connected  with  hot  and  cold  water  supply  can  be  installed  at  various 
working  'points  with  little  expense  and  great  advantage.  Such  a 
faucet  should  have  a  screw  end  and  then  by  means  of  a  rubber  hose 
either  or  both  kinds  of  water  -can  be  easily  drawn  from  a  combina- 
tion faucet  such  as  is  used  in  a  bathtub. 

On  the  outside  of  the  house  one  should  plan  either  plug  or 
faucet  attachments  to  be  used  for  cleaning  porches,  watering  flower 
beds,  and  for  fire  emergency. 

Leaky  Faucets. — Before  repairing  a  faucet,  close  the  house 
shut-off,  otherwise  when  you  begin  to  take  the  faucet  apart,  the 
water  will  spurt  out  and  flood  the  room.  In  modern  plumbing  the 
pipes  often  have  individual  stopcocks  under  each  fixture  so  it  is 
not  necessary  to  shut  off  all  the  house  water  supply  to  fix  a  faucet. 
In  the  absence  of  such  a  shut-off,  all  the  water  will  have  to  be  turned 


42 


HOUSEWIFERY 


off.  The  faucet  leaks  because  the  leather  or  lubber  washer  on  the 
end  of  the  screw  has  worn  with  constant  use  and  does  not  fit  the 
opening  through  which  the  water  flows.  This  washer  is  held  in 
place  with  a  screw  or  nut  and  the  worn  washer  must  be  replaced 
by  a  new  one.  To  do  this  loosen  the  big  nut  around  the  stem  and 
take  out  the  stem.  Eemove  the  old  washer  from  -the  end  of  the 
block  and  put  on  a  new  one.  Eeplace  the  stem  in  the  faucet  and 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  26. — Porcelain  sink,  showing 
sink  strainer  and  goose-neck  faucet. 
Such  an  outfit  is  especially  good  for 
the  laboratory;  also  for  pantry. 


FIG.  27. — Dish-washing  device. 


reset  the  big  nut,  using  a  monkey-wrench  to  turn  it  and  make  it  so 
tight  that  it  does  not  loosen  when  the  faucet  is  used. 

Filters. — Filters,  when  in  the  kitchen,  are  connected  with  the 
sink  plumbing.  They  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  convenient  for 
use  in  the  kitchen,  and  to  make  the  cleaning  of  the  filter  easy.  It  is 
a  common  belief  that  filters  once  installed  are  good  for  all  time. 
Instead,  they  need  very  -close  supervision  in  order  that  they  them- 
selves may  not  become  a  breeding-place  for  bacteria.  The  filter 


PLUMBING  43 

should  supply  clean  water,  and  the  better  types  with  proper  care 
do  supply  pure  water,  that  is,  free  from  bacteria. 

Filtration  means  passing  water  through  some  medium  with  such 
close  crevices  and  poresi  as  to  prohibit  the  passage  of  particles  of 
dirt.  If  the  pores  of  the  filtering  medium  are  of  microscopic  size, 
they  keep  back  the  germs  as  well  as  the  dirt  and  such  a  filter  is 
called  germ  proof.  All  sorts  of  cheaper  filters  have  found  their 
way  into  homes,  with  fillings  of  cotton  batting,  picked  cotton  or 
asbestos,  sand,  gravel,  or  broken  charcoal.  Many  of  these  filters 
are  built  to  be  screwed  to  the  cold  water  faucet.  These  filters  will 
clean  water  as  long  as  they  are  clean  themselves,  although  they 
will  never  remove  all  bacteria,  and  be  proof  against  germs  and 
disease.  In  most  cases  they  hold  about  a  teacup  of  filler  and  so 
small  an  amount  soon  'becomes  oversaturated  with  dirt.  Those  with 
pads  are  to  have  the  pad  changed  frequently,  even  daily.  Directions 
given  for  many  of  these  filters  say  to  reverse  the  filter  and  flood  with 
water  to  clean  it.  If  this  is  done  at  least  once  a  day,  and  the  filter 
contents  and  all  are  boiled,  there  is  a  possibility  that  clean  water 
might  be  attained,  but  no  one  would  -call  it  germ  proof. 

The  many  approved  filters  on  the  market  are  of  the  Pasteur 
type,  which  consist  of  a  hollow  cylinder  of  fine  unglazed  porcelain, 
called  the  candle,  which  is  enclosed  by  one  of  metal,  or  glass. 
This  outer  cylinder  is  connected  with  the  supply  pipe  and  by  means 
of  the  force  of  the  water  system  the  water  to  be  filtered  is  forced 
through  the  pores  of  the  porcelain  to  the  inside  of  the  candle ;  then 
dropping  into  the  reservoir,  it  leaves  the  suspended  matter  as  a 
coating  on  the  exterior  of  the  porcelain  candle.  Such  water  is 
germ  proof  if  the  filtration  is  not  continued  too  many  days.  The 
length  of  time  daring  which  a  sterile  filtration  may  be  obtained 
•depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  filter  and  its  contents;  at  a 
temperature  of  72°  Fahr.  the  filter  is  said  to  be  sterile  for  nine 
days,  while  at  95°  Fahr.  the  time  is  only  five  days. 

In  some  localities  these  filters  may  be  rented  per  month  with 
care  assumed  by  the  firm  which  rents.  In  such  cases  the  filters 
should  be  inspected  regularly  and  at  not  too  long  intervals.  At 
this  time,  new  candles  are  put  in  to  replace  the  old  ones  which  go 
to  the  factory  to  be  baked  in  large  ovens  and  rendered  sterile. 

Sinks. — The  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  standard  requirement 
of  a  sink.  It  should  be  smooth,  easily  cleaned,  non-absorbent,  and 


44  HOUSEWIFERY 

non-rusting.  The  materials  used  are  wood,  iron,  slate,  soapstone 
(one  grade  of  which  is  called  alberene),  copper,  enamel-lined  iron, 
and  porcelain ;  the  prices  increase  in  the  order  named. 

Sink  Materials. — Wood:  Many  of  the  early  sinks  were  made 
of  wood,  and  a  few  wooden  ones  are  used  to-day.  The  only  advan- 
tage of  wood  is  that,  in  institutions  where  dishes  may  be  washed  in 
the  sink,  there  is  less  danger  of  the  dishes  being  chipped.  The 
disadvantages  so  outnumber  the  advantages  that  in  modern  homes 
a  wooden  sink  is  not  considered.  It  soaks  water,  becomes  slimy, 
slowly  softens,  rots  and  splinters.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  it 
sweet-smelling,  and  free  from  grease. 

Galvanized  Iron. — Galvanized  iron  sinks  are  cheap  and  durable 
and  can  easily  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  'grease.  The  greatest 
disadvantage  is  that  if  the  galvanized  coating  is  worn  off,  it  will 
become  rusted.  A  few  drops  of  oil  wiped  over  the  surface  will  help 
to  prevent  rust. 

Slate. — Both  slate  sinks  and  soapstone  sinks  are  smooth,  inex- 
pensive, and  easily  kept  clean.  However,  there  will  be  a  gradual 
absorption  of  grease,  which  penetrates  the  material  and  which  is 
impossible  to  remove. 

Copper. — Copper  sinks  are  seldom  used  except  in  pantries.  They 
require  much  care  to  keep  them  clean  and  bright. 

Enamel-lmed  and  Porcelam. — Either  of  these  materials  would 
be  the  first  choice  of  every  housekeeper.  Enamel  is^  as  the  word 
implies,  an  enamel  covering  on  a  metal  surface,  made  like  an 
enamel  or  agate  saucepan,  while  the  porcelain  is  like  an  earthen- 
ware bowl,  molded  and  baked.  The  quality  of  the  enamel  is  deter- 
mined by  its  thickness,  and  its  freedom  from  blisters,  which  cause 
chipping.  If  a  stain  once  gets  under  the  surface  of  enamel,  it  is 
beyond  the  Teach  of  any  cleaning  agent.  Care  is  necessary  with 
both  enamel  and  porcelain,  because  a  sharp  blow  of  any  kind  may 
result  in  cracking  or  chipping  the  surface  finish. 

Size  of  Sinks. — This  is  an  important  consideration,  because  a 
small  sink  means  that  it  is  impossible  to  wash  and  rinse  dishes 
easily  and  without  breakage.  A  shallow  sink  will  be  more  easily 
kept  in  good  condition  than  one  which  is  so  deep  that  it  becomes  a 
shallow  tub.  One  chooses  a  tub-shaped  sink  only  as  a  slop  sink, 
or  in  institutions,  for  washing  vegetables.  A  good  general  size 


PLUMBING 


45 


is  one  large  enough  so  that  washing  and  rinsing  pans  may  both 
stand  in  the  sink. 

Drain  Outlet.— The  drain  outlet  should  be  flat  with  small 
openings  so  that,  to  a  certain  extent,  it  acts  as  a  sieve,  keeping  back 
larger  particles.  Were  it  fine  enough  for  the  smallest  bits  of  food, 
it  would  be  too  fine  for  rapid  drainage.  Some  sinks  are  built  with 


FIG.  28. — Well-planned  sink.     The  working  center  is  made  complete  by  the  excellent 
arrangement  of  windows,  drawers,  cupboards  and  the  proximity  of  cabinet. 

the  outlet  slightly  sunken  below  the  level  of  the  sink;  this  is  a 
great  disadvantage,  'because  it  requires  special  care  to  keep  it  clean. 

Sink-strainers  should  be  kept  at  one  end  of  the  sink  and  should 
be  used  to  prevent  small  particles  getting  into  the  trap. 

Drain  Boards. — Two  drain  boards,  if  space  permits,  are  more 
satisfactory  than  one,  because  they  make  possible  the  separating 
and  classifying  of  the  dishes.  These  drain  boards  are  usually  of 
hard  wood,  most  often  oak,  and  should  be  grooved,  with  the  grooves 
just  deep  enough  to  carry  off  the  water;  if  they  are  too  deep  they 


46  HOUSEWIFERY 

will  be  hard  to  clean.  In  limited  spaces,  it  is  often  found  an 
advantage  to  mount  the  drain  board  on  an  extension  fixture,  which 
allows  the  board  when  not  in  use  to  be  pushed  up  against  the  wall, 
all  of  which  is  a  great  help  in  cleaning  under  the  sink.  If  drawers 
or  cupboards  (Fig.  28)  are  built  under  these  drain  boards,  either 
build  them  so  that  they  fit  tightly  and  solidly  to  the  wall,  base- 
board and  floor,  and  prevent  collection  of  dust  and  water ;  or  build 
them  on  rollers  so  that  they  may  be  easily  rolled  out  for  frequent 
cleaning.  In  either  case  the  cupboards  must  leave  the  plumbing 
quite  open  and  must  be  proof  against  leaks  and  dirt. 


FIG.  29. — Sink  with  two  drainboards. 

Open  Plumbing. — Building  drawers  and  closets  under  the 
dpain  board  or  sink  should  in  no  way  close  in  a  trap,  because  it 
must  allow  for  thorough  cleaning,  and  because  it  is  a  principle  of 
sanitation  to-day  that  all  plumbing  should  be  open  so  that  traps 
are  easily  accessible  (Fig.  29).  A  kitchen  of  good  size  need  not 
have  anything  under  the  sink  except  perhaps  the  worker's  stool. 
Towel  racks  and  shelves  are  more  out  of  the  way  above  the  drain 
level  than  below  it. 

Space-saving  Sinks. — The  idea  of  space-saving  illustrated  by 
built-in  closets  and  drawers,  may  be  further  carried  out  in  small 
kitchens  'by  using  appliances  which  combine  sinks  and  washtubs, 
the  former  setting  into  the  top  of  the  latter,  each  having  its  own 
faucets,  so  that  either  is  complete  without  depending  upon  the 
other.  The  drain  of  the  sink  meets  an  extension  drain  in  the  side 
of  the  tub,  so  that  the  washtub  is  in  no  way  soiled  by  the  waste 


PLUMBING  47 

water  from  the  sink.  A  sink  mounted  in  this  way  is  higher  than 
most  sinks,  and  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  saving  of  strain 
upon  the  back  of  the  worker  resulting  from  sinks  set  at  the 
proper  height. 

Slop  Sinks. — Slop  sinks  are  low;  sinks  used  for  waste  water 
only.  They  are  an  especial  advantage  in  institutions  where  there 
is  much  waste  water  like  that  from  scrubbing,,  and  many  house- 
keepers like  one  on  each  floor.  They  are  so  much  lower  d,nd  deeper 
than  a  sink  or  washbasin,  that  they  reduce  the  work  of  lifting 
pails  of  water,  and  also  reduce  the  chance  of  splashing  water. 

Washtubs. — The  discussion  of  materials  for  sinks  may  apply, 
in  a  measure,  to  washtubs.  Wooden  wash  tubs  which  are  not  used 
every  day  are  likety  to  shrink,  causing  the  cracks  to  open,  with 
consequent  leakage.  A  wooden  washtub,  like  a  wooden  washing 
machine,  should  be  stored  in  a  cellar,  where  moisture  is  more  or 
less  prevalent,  or  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  a  wet  sponge  in  the 
tub  to  prevent  drying.  Of  course  any  constant  moisture  is  apt  to 
attract  roaches. 

Galvanized  iron  tubs  give  very  good  service,  if  care  is  taken  to 
prevent  the  scraping  or  wearing  off  of  the  galvanized  coating.  Any 
rust  spots  will,  of  course,  stain  clothing. 

Slate  and  soapstone  make  cheap  and  durable  washtubs. 

Enamel  and  porcelain  are,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sinks,  the  most 
desirable  materials  for  washtubs,  because  smooth  and  easily  kept 
perfectly  clean;  although  yellow  porcelain  is  sometimes  used,  white 
is  the  best  color,  as  the  clearness  of  the  water  is  more  easily  tested, 
as  well  as  the  depth  of  color  in  the  bluewater. 

Height  of  Sinks  and  Tubs. — The  placing  of  tubs  and  sinks  is 
a  matter  over  which  the  housekeeper  must  have  very  close  super- 
vision, because  until  the  plumbing  laws  require  a  plumber  to  raise 
the  height  of  kitchen  sinks  and  washtubs,  they  will  be  too  low 
for  almost  every  woman  old  enough  to  work  at  them  (Fig.  30). 
"  Standards  "  or  supports  for  sinks  that  are  molded  out  of  porce- 
lain or  cast  out  of  iron  are  obtainable;  but  in  order  to  get  the 
right  height,  gas  piping,  which  may  be  cut  any  length,  may  be 
used  for  legs.  If  this  is  to  be  done,  ba  sure  the  plumber1  under- 
stands that  the  molded  supports  will  not  be  needed.  With  some 
types  of  molded  supports,  the  standard  may  be  lengthened  by 
attaching  a  small  enamel  extension  by  means  of  a  metal  bracelet 


48  HOUSEWIFERY 

(Fig.  31).  It  will  be  wise  to  look  into  the  question  of  cost  because 
gas  piping  can.  be  painted  with  aluminum  paint,  or  white  enamel 
paint,  for  that  matter,  and  can  easily  be  cleaned  and  is  a  cheap  and 
satisfactory  support. 

The  best  height  is  that  onb  which  keeps  the  worker's  arms  bent 
at  a  right  angle  at  the  elbow.     This  position  insures  a  straight 


FIG.  30. — Sink  only  50  per  cent,  efficient,  because  it  is  set  too  low  for  the  worker.     The 
standard  of  sink  materials  and  drainboards  good. 

back,  good  poise  of  the  body,  and  less  fatigue.  The  depth  of  the 
sink  must  be  considered  in  determining  the  height  that  is  desired, 
for  a  shallow  sink  can  be  placed  higher  than  a  deep  one.  So  long 
as  the  majority  of  sinks  are  too  low  it  would  be  much  wiser  to  plan 
for;  the  usual  worker's  height,  5'  5"— 5'  6"— 5'  7",  and  set  the  sinks 
(accordingly  about  34" — 4=0"  from  top  of  sink  to  floor;  washtubs 
should  be  36"  to  40"  from  top  to  floor;  then  for  the  unusually  short 


PLUMBING  40 

worker  a  platform  would  make  her  work  more  comfortable,  with 
no  fatigue  from  a  bad  position.  The  objection  to  a  platform,  that 
it  causes  much  stepping  up  and  down,  may  be  overcome  by  the 
use  of  large  drain  boards  at  each  side,  and  by  having  the  platform 


FIG.  31. — This  shows  the  bracelet  extension  which  may  be  used  to  raise  all  low  sinks.    This 
sink  is  divided  to  furnish  a  place  for  washing  and  rinsing  dishes. 

large  enough  to  allow  the  worker  to  step  about  without  having  to 
step  off.  Such  a  platform,  even  if  not  needed  by  the  housekeeper, 
makes  it  possible  for  older  children  to  take  their  share  of  dish- 
washing without  the  fatigue  of  overreaching,  and  without  the  accom- 
panying splashing  caused  by  the  height  of  work  and  worker  not 


50 


HOUSEWIFERY 


being  adjusted  to  each  other.  The  device  of  a  movable  platform  for 
children  will  be  found  very  useful  in  all  lavatories;  it  greatly  re- 
duces the  mothers'  task  in  washing  hands  and  faces. 


FIG.  32. — A  well-arranged  bathroom. 

Bathtubs.— -The  cheapest  bathtub  is  one  of  tin,  either  painted 
or  bright  finished.  It  requires  a  great  amount  of  care,  and  needs 
to  be  renovated  at  least  once  a  year,  making  it  in  the  end  an  expen- 
sive tub. 


PLUMBING  51 

The  enamel  or  porcelain  tub  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory.  A 
porcelain  bathtub  is  very  expensive,  and  really  gives  no  better  service 
than  the  heavy  enamel  (Fig.  32).  The  newest  porcelain  tubs  are 
made  without  legs,  %  set  directly  into  the  corner,  and  flat  upon  the 
floor,  so  that  there  is  no  chance  for  dust  to  gather  under  them. 
For  materials,  see  Sinks,  page  43. 

Washbasins. — Washbasins  are  of  either  marble,  enamel,  or  por- 
celain. Marble  is  more  or  less  absorbent,  and  is  affected  by  acids, 
which  destroy  the  glaze.  Enamel  or  porcelain  is  more  satisfactory 
in  all  ways.  Enamel-lined  or  porcelain  would  be  the  first  choice 
of  every  housekeeper. 

SUGOESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of   a   plumbing  system?     Draw   a  diagram   of  a 

general  plumbing  system. 

2.  Where    should    "clean-outs"   be   placed?      Why?      Describe   method   of 

procedure  in  case  of  stoppage. 

3.  Why  should  you  not  have  a  perfectly  straight  pipe  as  an  outlet  to,  a 

sink  or  washbasin? 

4.  What  do  you  consider  the  best  substitute  for  a  flush  closet?     Why? 

5.  What    is    the    purpose    of   a    shut-off?      Where    should    it    be    placed? 

What  is  a  "stop  and  waste"?     What  is  a  street  box? 

6.  Considering  the  cost  of  building  a  brick  or  cement  cistern,  is  the  use 

of  rain  water  economical  ?    Why  ? 

7.  Why  should  water  from  hot-water  boilers  never  be  used  for  drinking? 

8.  How  can  hard  water  be  converted  into  good  water  for  laundering? 

9.  How  could  the  housewife  test  soil  for  absorption  and  rapid  drainage? 

REFERENCES 

BAILEY,  E.  H.  S.,  SANITARY  AND  APPLIED  CHEMISTRY.    Macmillan  Co. 

BROADHURST,  JEAN,  HOME  AND  COMMUNITY  HYGIENE.    J..B.  Lippincott  Co. 

CLARK,  T.  M.,  THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE.    Macmillan  Co. 

COSGROVE,  J.  J.,  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PLUMBING.  Standard  Plumb- 
ing and  Manufacturing  Co. 

FARM  HOME  CONVENIENCES.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  927. 

FULLER,  MYRON  L.,  WATER  FOR  FARM  HOMES.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

HARRINGTON,  CHARLES,  PRACTICAL  HYGIENE.     Ginn  &  Co. 

HERING-SHAW,  A.,  DOMESTIC  SANITATION  AND  PLUMBING.  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand  Co. 

HOGDON,  D.  R.,  ELEMENTARY  GENERAL  SCIENCE.  Hinds,  Hayden  &  Eldridge. 

KEENE,  E.  S.,  MECHANICS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co. 

LAWLER,  J.  J.,  MODERN  PLUMBING,  STEAM  AND  HOT-WATER  HEATING.  Popu- 
lar Publishing  Co. 

LYNDE,  C.  J.,  PHYSICS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  Macmillan  Co. 

OGDEN,  HENRY  N.,  RURAL  HYGIENE.    Macmillan  Co. 

WILSON,  E.  T.,  MODERN  CONVENIENCES  FOR  FARM  HOME.  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  270. 

WINSLOW,  C.  E.  A.,  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL.    John  Wylie  &  Sons. 

WOOD,  H.  B.,  SANITATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED.    John  Wylie  &  Sons. 


CHAPTEE  III 

HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 

HEATING  and  lighting  are  as  essential  in  their  way  as  is  plumb- 
ing. As  modern  plumbing,  which  is  dependent  upon  water  and 
sewer  systems,  makes  possible  greater  conveniences  in  a  house,  so 
community  lighting,  and,  in  apartments,  a  common  heating  plant 
offer  added  comforts.  Kural  districts  suffer  a  handicap,  because, 
although  the  use  of  electric  lighting  is  increasing,  there  is  often 
no  community  lighting  system,  and  the  individual  rural  home  must 
have  its  separate  lighting  arrangements  as  well  as  its  separate 
stoves  or  furnace.  The  advance  of  time  has  made  available  for  the 
country  fuels  which  may  take  the  place  of  city  gas  and  electricity. 
Where  the  rural  home  has  not  adopted  them,  it  is  not  because  they 
are  necessarily  expensive ;  fbut  because  they  are  new  in  idea  or  the 
housewife  has  not  taken  time  to  consider  the  new  device  or  mechan- 
ism which  in  the  end  would  mean  so  much  saving  to  her.  Some 
of  these  other  fuels  (other  than  gas  and  electricity)  which  are  most 
adaptable  for  heat  and  for  cooking,  are  gasoline,  kerosene,  and 
acetylene.  Kerosene,  acetylene,  and  Presto  (compressed  acetylene) 
are  used  for  both  heat  and  light. 

Humidity  and  the  Heating  Problem. — Eecent  investigation 
has  shown  that  comfortable  artificial  heating  is  as  much  a  problem 
of  keeping  the  air  moist  as  it  is  of  burning  fuel  in  the  stove  or 
furnace.  This  can  be  easily  accomplished  by  putting  water  on  the 
stove  or  radiator  and  letting  it  evaporate  in  the  room.  A  consid- 
erable quantity  of  water  is  needed,,  so  that  it  is  a  matter  of  con- 
stantly renewing  the  water  as  it  evaporates. 

Ventilation  is  brought  about  by  circulation  of  air.  Nature's 
law  of  gases  will  automatically  control  ventilation,  because  it  pro- 
vides that  heated  air  rise  and  leave  room  for  cold  air  to  enter  and 
fill  the  lower  level.  This  air,  in  turn,  heats  and  rises,  and  the  air 
cycle  which  promotes  ventilation  is  produced. 

In  the  cook  stove  flues  or  openings  increase  the  ventilation ;  and 
52 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  53 

in  rooms  spaces  must  be  allowed  for  heated  air  to  pass  up  and  out. 
A  room  with  fresh  air  heats  more  rapidly  than  one  with  stale. 
used  air.  With  these  two  facts,  as  a  working  basis,  various  sugges- 
tions may  be  given  for  ventilation. 

Suggestions  for  Ventilation. — Lower  window  from  the  top. 

Lower  window  from  the  top  and  raise  from  the  bottom. 

Have  a  window  open  and  door  opposite  also  open. 

Use  a  window  board,  so  that  the  air  may  sift  in  between  the 
sashes. 

Use  a  ventilator  which  is  on  the  principle  of  a  window  board; 
manufactured  ventilators  usually  have  some  form  of  shutter  or  pipe 
that  can  be  regulated. 

Doors  opening  into  hallways  and  the  hall  act  as  a  flue. 

A  grate  with  a  fire  or  a  candle  burning  in  it  will  ventilate  with- 
out windows  being  open. 

In  sick  rooms  cool,  moist  air  may  be  supplied  by  hanging  up 
a  sheet  which  has  been  wrung  out  of  cold  water.  As  fast  as  it 
dries,  remoisten. 

FUELS 

Fuel  is  food  for  the  fire.  It  is  rated  in  value  in  proportion  as 
it  produces  heat  for  its  cost  and  volume.  Its  price  is  controlled 
partly  by  the  proximity  of  the  supply  to  the  local  market;  its  effi- 
ciency in  the  home  is  rated  by  its  freedom  from  dirt  and  odor,  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  used ;  its  economy  by  the  amount  needed  to 
produce  the  required  heat  quickly  and  by  its  freedom  from  waste. 

Wood  burns  rapidly  and  makes  an  intensely  hot  fire,  but  a  fire 
of  short  duration,  and  unless  one  has  an  abundance  of  wood  fuel  at 
hand  at  little  cost,  it  is  a  very  expensive  fuel.  A  wood  fire  is  not 
so  easy  to  keep  as  coal;  but  if  it  is  possible  to  have  two  types  of 
wood,  the  light  softer  wood  being  used  for  quick  burning  and  the 
heavier  hard  wood  for  slow  burning,  the  wood  fire  can  be  operated  at 
much  less  cost,  and  at  greater  convenience. 

Coal. — Of  the  two  types  of  coal,  hard  and  soft,  hard  coal  is 
especially  serviceable  because  of  its  freedom  from  the  excess  gases 
which  are  still  in  the  soft  coal.  As  hard  coal  is  likely  to  corrode 
flues,  careful  attention  will  have  to  be  given  to  the  care  of  the  flues. 


54  HOUSEWIFERY 

f    great  heat 

Hard   coal  —  Advantages^    burns  slowly 
[    little  care 

{high  burning  point 
cost  high 
corrodes  flue 


Soft  coal-Advantages.  {  Urnillg  P°int 


less  heat 

Disadvantage**}    dirty 
smoke 

{low  burning  point 
little  ash 
clean 

less  heat 
rapid  burning 
expensive 
requires  watching 


Disadvantages 


Coke  is  a  charcoal  made  from  soft  coal  when  heated  in  great 
ovens  with  a  small  supply  of  air.  It  is  secured,  in  'most  part,  as 
a  residue  from  coal  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  and  it 
is  a  cheaper  fuel  than  coal.  It  has  a  low  burning  point  and  so  is 
especially  good  for  quick  kitchen  work. 

Charcoal,  which  is  made  by  partially  burning  wood,  is  more 
porous  than  either  coke  or  soft  coal,  bursting  into  flame  at  low 
temperature,  and  is  often  used  for  broiling,  since  broiling  over 
charcoal  gives  .a  special  flavor. 

Coal  dust,  which  is  so  often  wasted,  is  made  into  molded 
bricks,  known  as  "briquettes,"  and  is  available  in  some  markets. 
These  bricks  are  used  as  lumps  of  coal.  The  greatest  disadvantage 
of  this  type  of  substitute  coal  is  a  very  heavy  smoke  which  is  given 
off  in  the  first  few  minutes  of  its  burning. 

Other  fuels,  in  some  localities,  play  an  important  part:  kero- 
sene, gasoline,  alcohol,  acetylene,  Presto-lite,  gas,  and  electricity. 
These  fuels  each  require  a  different  type  of  burner,  and  vary  in 
price  under  different  conditions. 

Kerosene  is  an  oil  which  has  a  strong  odor,  burns  with  an  odor, 
and  is  a  fuel  which  necessitates  much  cleaning  and  care.  Usually 
a  wick  is  used  in  the  lamp  or  stove  to  feed  the  flame  with  fuel. 
In  the  modern  heaters,  the  oil  is  vaporized  and  so  may  burn  with- 
out a  wick. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  55 

Alcohol  is  an  expensive  fuel,  but  with  a  vaporizing  burner  has 
good  heating  power.  One  would  hardly  consider  it,  however,  as 
a  regular  cooking  or  heating  fuel.  Wood  alcohol  and  denatured 
alcohol  are  much  less  expensive  than  grain  alcohol,  which  can  not 
practically  be  considered  a  fuel  because  of  its  expense.  Alcohol  is 
easily  used  in  little  individual  burners  in  traveling,  with  self- 
heating  irons,  and  with  various  devices  for  heating  water,  chafing 
dishes,  curling  irons,,  etc.  An  alcohol  stove  is  shown  in  Fig.  33. 


Fia.  33.— Alcohol  stove.    Tack  in  the  back. 

Canned  Heat  and  Light. — Solid  alcohol,  or  canned  heat,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  is  another  emergency  fuel  which  is  available 
in  small  tin  cans  and  is  'burned  in  its  container  without  a  special 
stove.  Presto-lite  might  be  spoken  of  as  canned  gas,  in  that  tanks 
of  Presto-lite  or  compressed  acetylene  gas,  like  tanks  of  oxygen, 
may  be  purchased  and  used.  (See  Acetylene  below.) 

Gasoline  is  a  fuel  that  gives  satisfactory  service  as  a  cooking 
fuel.  Its  disadvantages  are  its  expense,  and,  more  important,  its 
danger.  It  vaporizes  easily,  mixes  with  air  readily,  and  is  most 
inflammable.  It  introduces  a  danger  which,  so  long  as  there  are 
so  many  other  fuels  equally  as  good,  if  not  better,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  incur. 

Acetylene  is  a  gas  produced  by  allowing  water  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  calcium  carbide.  Acetylene  is  a  poisonous  gas,  but  will 
not  explode  unless  it  is  under  pressure,  or  until  mixed  with  air. 


56 


HOUSEWIFERY 


125 


FIG.  34. — Interior  of  a  gas  meter,  showing  the  bellows  action.     Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  Washington,  D.  C. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


57 


Because  of  the  gas  being  poisonous,  one  should  be  extremely  careful 
that  all  burner  connections  are  tight,  and  that  by  no  chance  the 
flame  be  turned  so  low  that  it  would  be  likely  to  blow  out.  The  car- 
bide is  purchased  in  water-tight  containers  and  is  perfectly  safe  so 
long  as  kept  dry  and  in  a  well  ventilated  storage  place.  The  Na- 
tional Fire  Underwriters  issue  rules  which  will  serve  as  cautions. 
These  can  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the  office  in  any  large  city. 

Gas,  which  is  an  invisible  vapor  secured  from  coal  by  heating, 
is  used  for  lighting,  heating,  and  cooking.  In  some  localities 
natural  gas  is  substituted  for  manufactured  gas.  Natural  gas  is 
obtained  from  the  depths  of  the  earth  and  is  piped  like  oil  or 


FIG.  35.— Gas  meter— index  reads  79,500  cubic  feet. 

water;  it  extends  into  the  earth  in  veins  which  are  so  connected 
that  if  a  second  vein  is  tapped,  the  first  may  give  out.  Both  manu- 
factured and  natural  gas  are  furnished  to  consumers  by  companies 
that  meter  the  gas  (Fig.  34)  and  charge  for  it  so  much  per  thou- 
sand cubic  feet.  The  cost  price  may  be  represented  at  about  $.25- 
$.30  per  thousand  cubic  feet  for  natural  gas,  and  $.80-$1.00  for 
manufactured  gas. 

TV  Bead  the  Meter  (Fig.  35). — The  dial  on  the  right  hand 
(marked  1  thousand)  indicates  100  feet  between  any  two  figures; 
the  middle  dial  indicates  1,000  feet  between,  figures ;  and  the  dial  on 
the  left  indicates  10,000  feet  between  figures.  In  reading,  always 
read  the  lesser  of  the  two  numbers  between  which  the  hand  rests. 
For  example,  the  meter  as  shown  reads  500  plus  9,000  plus  70,000, 
or  79,500  feet.  The  amount  of  gas  used  in  a  month  would  be  the 
difference  between  the  reading  taken  at  the  beginning  of  the  month 
and  the  one  taken  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

Gas  is  distributed  by  small  pipes  and  is  controlled  by  stop  cocks 


58 


HOUSEWIFERY 


and  individual  burners  of  various  shapes  (Figs.  36  and  37).  For 
heating,  cooking,  and  incandescent  lighting,  an  air  mixer  com- 
monly known  as  the  Bunsen  burner  mixes  the  right  proportion  of 
air  and  gas  so  that  it  will  burn  with  a  blue  flame  and  give  the 
greatest  heat.  Gas  unmixed  with  air  burns  yellow  like  a  kerosene 
lamp  and  deposits  soot  in  cooking.  Be  sure  that  the  flame  of  the 
gas  stove  'burns  blue ;  a  yellow  tip  to  the  flame  means  that  there  is 
not  enough  air  going  in  at  the  mixer,  which  is  between  the  stop 


FIG.  36. — Blue  flame  for  heat, 
as  produced  by  the  Bunsen  burner 
which  has  holes  for  intake  of  air, 
which  mixes  with  the  gas  before 
burning. 


FIG.  37. — Yellow  flame  for  light.  This  flame  has  no 
chance  for  air  until  at  the  point  of  burning. 


cock  and  the  flame.  This  is  overcome  by  opening  the  ventilator 
into  the  mixer.  A  flame  that  pops  on  lighting  and  on  turning  out 
has  too  much  air. 

Gas  pilot  lights  on  gas  heating  and  lighting  appliances  are  a 
great  convenience.  A  pilot  light  is  a  small  gas  jet  which  burns 
constantly  near  the  burners  on  gas  ranges,  heaters,  and  light  fix- 
tures, and  is  used  to  ignite  the  gas  as  the  valve  or  cock  is  opened. 
One  must  not  feel  that  this  pilot  is  not  costing  something,  but  to 
some  its  cost  is  more  than  balanced  by  its  convenience.  This  is 
especially  true  with  high  chandelier  lights  and  for  lights  that  are 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  59 

at  the  foot  or  the  head  of  stairs,  which  may  be  easily  turned  on  or 
off  by  pulling  the  chain  of  the  gas  cock. 

An  electric  lighting  system  for  gas  is  the  method  of  using  an 
electric  spark  produced  by  a  dry  battery  with  copper  wire  led  from 
the  battery  to  each  individual  gas  tip.  A  second  wire,  attached  to 
the  lever  operated  by  the  chain,  crosses  the  copper  wire  as  the  chain 
is  pulled  to  open  the  gas  valve;  the  two  wires  coming  in  contact 
produce  a  spark,  which  ignites  the  gas.  Continual  burning  of  pilots 
is  not  necessary  in  the  use  of  gas  stoves,  because  matches  are  cheap, 
and  because  at  very  little  cost  a  flint  lighter  may  be  purchased  which 
will  at  any  time  spark  a  light;  it  is  much  cheaper  to  turn  on  the 
gas  and  light  matches  than  carelessly  to  keep  the  burner  going. 
The  newer  type  gas  stoves  have  a  pilot  which  is  like  a  spark  burner. 
The  lever  operating  this  pilot  has  a  spring,  which  automatically 
shuts  off  the  pilot  as  soon  as  released  by  the  worker.  This  of  course 
eliminates  the  extra  cost  of  gas  caused  by  most  pilot  lights. 

Danger  from  Gas,  Gasoline,  Kerosene,  Acetylene. — Any  of 
the  gases  used  for  fuel  will  cause  asphyxiation  if  breathed  in  quan« 
tity  hence  one  must  guard  against  leaks,  in  the  pipes,  or  against 
flames  blowing  out.  Gas  and  the  fumes  of  gas,  if  mixed  with  air 
in  certain  proportions,  are  highly  explosive.  One  must  therefore 
never  hunt  for  a  leak  in  gas  pipes  with  an  open  flame  as  a  candle, 
lamp,  or  match.  Storage  of  kerosene  and  gasoline  should  always 
l)e  with  the  thought  of  avoiding  spread  of  odor  and  danger  of  fire. 
Kerosene  is  a  safer  fuel  than  gasoline  to  store,  but  both  are  more 
safely  stored  outside  the  house.  Keeping  any  of  the  inflammables 
at  a  low  temperature  makes  them  safer  to  store. 

Electricity. — There  are  two  types  of  electric  currents,  the  alter- 
nating and  the  direct.  Knowing  the  difference  between  these  two 
currents  is  not  so  necessary  for  the  housekeeper  as  for  her  to  know 
which  of  these  two  types  of  currents  she  is  to  use.  The  local  elec- 
tric company  will  of  course  furnish  information.  The  alternating 
current  is  more  often  used,  so  that  the  motors  which  are  to  operate 
sewing  machines,  washing  machines,  ice  cream  freezers,  electric 
fans,  etc.,  are  likely  to  be  alternating  motors,  but  one  can  buy  any 
of  these  machines  with  direct  current  motors  if  one  but  asks  for 
them. 

Besides  knowing  the  kind  of  electric  current,  one  should  know 
the  voltage  of  the  current.  As  the  current  is  most  often  alternating, 


60  HOUSEWIFERY 

so  the  voltage  is  usually  110.  Home  lights  and  home  ma-chines, 
then,  are  usually  operated  on  alternating  current  and  110  .volt- 
age; but  one  should  make  inquiry  of  the  local  electric  company 
before  buying  electric  appliances  and  equipment.  A  low  voltage 
electric  utensil  cannot  'be  attached  to  a  high  voltage  line  without 
overheating  and  melting  the  wiring  in  the  utensil.  The  pressure 
of  the  electric  force  is  measured  by  voltage;  the  rate  of  flow  by 
amperage;  and  the  unit  of  resistance  to  the  flow  of  the  current 
through  a  conductor  is  called  an  ohm.  A  watt  is  the  unit  of 
electric  power. 

Heating  or  lighting  by  electricity  is  brought  about  by  resist- 
ance offered  by  certain  materials  to  the  passage  of  the  electrical 
current  which  produces  heat.  In  the  case  of  the  stove,  hot-water 


KILOWATT  HOURS 

FIG.  38. — Dial  of  a  watt-hour  meter. 

heaters,  warming  pads  or  electric  irons,  special  wires  radiate  heat. 
In  the  lamp  the  wire  is  finer  and  of  such  composition  as  to  become 
incandescent  with  heat  and  emit  a  white  light. 

To  Read  an  Electric  Meter. — Electricity  is  measured  by  a  meter 
which  indicates  the  number  of  watts  used ;  as  a  watt  is  a  small  unit, 
the  distributing  unit  of  electricity  is  the  kilowatt,  or  a  thousand 
watts.  Our  electric  bills  then  are  in  terms  of  "kilowatt-hours," 
that  is,  the  number  of  hours  that  we  have  used  a  thousand  watts 
of  electric  current.  To  read  the  meter  (Fig.  38)  :  A  complete 
revolution  of  the  right  hand  dial  indicates  10  kilowatt  hours ;  the 
next  dial  indicates  100  kilowatt  hours;  the  third  indicates  1,000 
kilowatt  hours;  the  last,  on  the  extreme  left,  indicates  10,000  kilo- 
watt hours.  In  reading,  read  from  the  right-hand  dial  to  the  left, 
and  read  the  lesser  of  the  two  numbers  between  which  the  hand 
rests.  To  obtain  the  consumption,  subtract  the  reading  at  the 
beginning  of  a  period  from  that  at  the  end  of  a  period.  If  the 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


61 


dial  on  the  meter  has  "  multiply,"  multiply  the  difference  accord- 
ingly ;  if  the  dial  is  plain,  as  above,  the  reading  is  direct,  and  gives 
the  actual  consumption  in  kilowatt  hours.  The  reading  above  is 
8  plus  30  plus  500  plus  0000,  or  538  kilowatt  hours. 

HEATING 

Stoves  for  Cooking,  Laundry,  Heating. — Stoves  and  furnaces 
vary  to  some  extent  with  the  type  of  fuel  which  they  use.  Economy 
in  the  use  of  fuel  depends  in  part  upon  the  proper  kind  of  heater, 
and  partly  upon  the  management  of  stoves  and  furnaces.  Either 


/?//?  —  j 


GflS 


FIG.  39. — A  hood  over  the  stove 
for  the  escape  of  heated  air  and  cooking 
odors  must  be  connected  with  the 
chimney. 


FIG.  40. — A  Bunsen  burner  with  the 
flame  spreader.  This  kind  of  burner  is 
used  in  the  gas  stove. 


must  have  a  compartment  for  fire  called  a  fire-box,  openings  and 
passages  to  furnish  cold  air  to  the  fire,  and  flues  to  carry  off  waste 
gases  and  dampers  which  open  and  close  to  regulate  the  draughts 
of  cold  air  and  of  waste  gases  and  hot  air.  The  principle  of  firing 
is  the  same  for  stoves  and  furnaces.  Coal  and  wood  are  the  common 
fuels,  particularly  coal. 

Cook  stoves  follow  the  general  principles  of  all  stoves  and  fur- 
naces, but  have  the  oven  as  an  extra  compartment  for  baking. 


62 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Coal  cook  stoves  require  a  special  damper  for  the  heated 
waste  gases  and  air  which,  when  the  damper  is  rightly  adjusted, 
forces  them  to  go  around  the  oven  'box.  Wlarming  ovens  used  for 
food  and  dishes,  that  are  heated  like  the  oven,  only  to  a  much  less 
degree,  are  extra  conveniences,  found  in  many  cook  stoves.  A  well 
chosen  cook  stove  is  one  that  is  built  without  ornamentation  of 
either  casting  or  nickel.  Every  irregularity  not  only  holds  dirt 


FIG.  41. — Different  kinds  of  stoves:     1,  electricity;  2,  gas;  3,  coal. 

Irat  adds  much  to  the  work  of  cleaning.  A  hood  (Fig.  39)  above 
the  stove  for  the  escape  of  heat  and  cooking  odors  adds  much  to 
the  comfort  of  the  kitchen. 

Gas  Cook  Stoves, — A  gas  stove  may  consist  of  one  burner,  in 
which  case  it  is  usually  called  a  burner  or  gas  plate  (Fig.  40). 
Two,  three  or  four  such  burners  put  together  are  called  gas  plates ; 
and  if  a  portable  oven  be  put  on  one  burner,  the  combination  is 
termed  a  stove.  With  perhaps  three  or  four  burners  on  top  and 
an  oven  either  below  or  above  these  burners,  one  has  a  gas  range. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  63 

The  more  complete  range  has  an  oven,  broiler,  and  often  a  warming 
closet,  besides  the  top  for  cooking. 

Electric  Cook  Stoves. — These  stoves  are  not  unlike  the  gas 
stove  in  form,  except  that  they  are  heated  by  means  of  wire  coils, 
through  which  the  electricity  passes.  They  may  or  may  not  have 
an  oven.  With  the  small  cooking  units  like  saucepans,  toasters, 
and  percolators,  an  electric  plug  attachment  is  the  substitute  for 
the  more  permanently  connected  stove  top.  As  these  plugs  are 


FIG.  42. — Blue  flame  kerosene  stove,  especially  suitable  for  places  where  gas  is  not  obtain- 
able for  a  quick  fuel. 

standardized  in  size,  it  is  possible  to  make  any  connections  pro- 
vided the  voltage  is  the  same  (Fig.  41). 

Kerosene  Cook  Stoves. — The  kerosene  stove  is  another  type 
purchasable  in  single  units,  or  in  the  large  grouping  of  units  that 
make  cooking  and  baking  possible..  The  modern  kerosene  stove 
(Fig.  42)  produces  a  clear  blue  flame  by  first  vaporizing  the  kero- 
seno  and  then  burning  the  vapor.  This  blue  flame  has  brought 
into  use  the  name  "blue  flame  stove."  This  makes  a  very  satis- 
factory range.  As  long  as  the  burner  is  kept  clean  it  is  free  from 


64 


HOUSEWIFERY 


odor.  The  wick  of  such  a  stove  must  be  kept  free  from  all  charred 
particles,  so  that  the  flame  will  be  even  and  will  burn  without 
sooting.  A  longer  time  must  usually  be  allowed  to  cook  over  kerosene 
as  the  heat  is  not  so  intense  as  that  of  coal  or  gas.  By  means  of  a 

special  burner  it  is  possible  to 
burn  kerosene  in  a  coal  or 
wood  stove  (Fig.  43). 

Laundry  Stoves. — Any 
stove  that  will  heat  a  pan,  like 
a  cook  stove,  can  be  converted 
into  a  laundry  stove,  because 
either  clothes  boiler  or  irons 
can  be  set  over  such  a  fire. 
This,  in  fact,  is  necessary 
where  kitchen  and  laundry 
must  be  combined.  The  ideal 
plan  would  be  to  keep  the  two 
workrooms  separate,  in  which 
case  the  housewife  might  se- 
lect a  special  laundry  stove 
for  the  laundry. 

A  coal  stove  for  the  laun- 
dry may  or  may  not  contain  a 
water-back,  which  will  heat  all 
the  water  for  laundry  use. 
They  are  usually  built  with  a 
flat  top  to  hold  the  boiler, 
while  the  sides  of  the  stove  are 
planned  to  heat  the  irons  by 
having  them  rest  up  around 
the  sides  (Fig.  44).  In  this 
way  the  irons  come  into  the 
very  closest  contact  with  the 
hottest  part  of  the  fire.  As 
the  stove  becomes  very  old,  it  naturally  is  gradually  weakened  by 
this  intense  heat,  so  care  will  have  to  be  used  not  to  throw  the  irons 
against  the  side. 

Gas-  laundry  stoves  may  be  purchased  with  a  central  section  just 
large  enough  to  hold  the  average  wash-boiler,  and,  to  help  in  lifting 
the  boiler,  the  stove  is  built  with  a  lower  working  surface.  In 


FIG.  43. — A  device  for   burning  kerosene  in 
the  cook  stove. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  65 

this  type  of  stove,  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  central  space  are 
covered  burners  for  heating  the  irons.  These  covered  or  hooded 
burners  are  fuel-savers  because  the  heat  is  held  in  around 
the  iron. 

Heating  by  stoves,  placed  in  one  or  more  rooms,  is  still  prob- 
ably the  most  common  method  of  heating  individual  houses.     De- 
spite its  drawback  of  dust  and  dirt,  of  carry- 
ing coal  through  the  house,  of  care  involved, 
such  stoves  give  a  cheery  heat  and  can  be 
easily  controlled  to  give  as  much  heat  as  pos- 
sible.    Their  management  is  like  that  of  a 
furnace  or  cook  stove  fire. 

Grate  Fires. — Fireplaces  utilize  only  a 
part  of  the  heat  produced,  so  that  one  must 
not  expect  to  have  the  room  as  evenly  heated 
as  with  furnaces  or  .stoves.  By  means  of  iron 
air  chambers  about  the  fireplace  opening  into 
the  room,  it  is  possible  to  throw  out  more 
heat  into  the  room,  and  it  is  also  possible  that 
the  heat  from  the  grate  on  the  first  floor 
may  be  conducted  by  flues  to  heat  the  rooms 
above.  This  is  a  more  effective  system  than  .  FIG  44. — A  coal  stove  de- 

.,  ,      n         -.  ,.,..          signed  for  heating  irons.      A 

the  simple  fireplace  grate,  and  is  beginning  boiler  may  be  connected  with 

•     ,  TJ_        -n  j_-        this    stove    allowing    for    hot 

to   COme  into  USe.      It  Will  Serve   as   a   SatlS-  water  all  over  the  house. 

factory  method  of  heating  houses  located 

where  winters  are  very  mild  or  for  summer  houses  not  to  be  used  in 
the  severe  cold  weather.  Fireplaces  are  useful  for  ventilating  by  the 
rise  of  hot  air  and  the  fall  of  cold  air,  whether  or  not  the  fires 
are  built  in  them. 

The  old-fashioned  Franklin  stove  is  a  stove  designed  to  repre- 
sent a  fireplace,  that  really  heats  much  like  a  stove,  giving  the 
pleasure  of  the  open  fire  of  a  grate.  It  is  placed  out  in  the  room 
and  connects  with  the  flue  by  a  stovepipe.  It  will  be  found  very 
satisfactory  for  occasional  use. 

Hot-air  Furnaces. — Hot-air  furnaces  are  really  jacketed  stoves 
(Fig.  45).  The  fire  burns  in  the  inner  compartment  and  by  radia- 
tion heats  the  cold  air  which  is  piped  in  from  out-of-doors  to  the 
space  between  the  jacket  and  the  firebox.  This  cold-air  flue  extends 
to  an  opening  in  the  cellar  wall,  which  should  be  protected,  by 
means  of  wire  grating,  from  the  chance  entrance  of  animals.  Cheese- 
5 


66 


HOUSEWIFERY 


cloth  sieves  are  often  put  over  the  openings  so  that  as  the  air  comes 
to  the  furnace,  it  is  partially  cleaned  of  street  dust.  As  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  hot-air  furnace  is  circulation  of  air  (Fig.  46),  the  cold 
air  enters  at  a  low  level,  is  heated,  expands,  rises  and  passes  from 
the  jacket  into  the  flues  which  are  attached  to  it  and  through  these 
rises  to  the  various  parts  of  the  house.  These  flues  are  divided  so 
that  a  separate  flue  reaches  each  room  terminating  in  a  register. 


TO  CH/MEY 
SMOKE 


PVflfAIR 

FROM  OUTSIDE 


FIG.  45.  —  Diagram  of  hot-air  furnace. 


Hot-air  heat  is  likely  to  be  dusty  and  dry.  The  sifting  of  the  air 
relieves  the  dust  difficulty,  and  water  in  a  tank  arranged  for  the 
purpose  in  the  air  chamber  of  the  furnace  will  moisten  the  air  so 
as  to  make  it  less  parched. 

Hot  water  heating  systems  operate  by  the  circulation  of  hot 
water  through  pipes  or  radiators  located  in  the  rooms  (Fig.  47). 
The  water  as  it  cools  in  the  radiators  becomes  heavier  than  the 
warm  water  and  descends  to  the  boiler,  forcing  other  hot  water 
to  rise  to  the  radiators,  thus  keeping  up  the  circulation  of  heated 
water.  This  system  is  easily  operated,  and  the  heatvis  a  pleasant 
one. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


67 


One-pipe  or  Pipeless  Heater. — A  one-pipe  or  pipeless  heater  or 
furnace  differs  from  the  hot-air  furnace,  in  that  it  has  no  flues 
to  conduct  the  hot  air  through  the  house.  One-pipe  means  that  only 
the  pipe  connected  with  the  chimney  is  necessary.  This  will  carry 
off  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  fire. 

The  heater  of  the  one-pipe  system  is  best  suited  to  a  small 
house  and  one  where  the  arrangement  of  rooms  is  quite  compact. 
All  halls  and  rooms  should  open  into  each  other;  otherwise,  the 
free  circulation  of  heated  air  is  prohibited.  The  rooms  on  the 


FIG.  48a. — One  pipe  heater 

second  floor  are  heated  by  means  of  registers  set  in  the  floor  so 
that  the  heat  of  the  lower  floors  may  rise  to  the  upper. 

The  ease  with  which  such  a  furnace  may  be  installed  is  about 
equal  to  the  setting  up  of  any  stove.  In  an  old  house,  which  was 
built  without  planning  for  a  furnace,  it  is  possible  to  heat  it  with- 
out the  expense  and  inconvenience  of  -either  breaking  walls  or 
having  unsightly  connections.  The  depth  of  the  cellar  or  pit 
(see  Fig.  46)  is  about  6%  feet  and  could  be  easily  arranged  even 
in  a  house  without  a  cellar. 

.  The  heater  should  be  on  the  north  side  of  the  house.  Coils  for 
heating  water  may  be  placed  in  this  furnace,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  heat  used  to  heat  the  water  is  that  much  less  heat  for 
the  house.  This  may  be  overcome  by  using  a  larger  furnace. 


68 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Steam  heating  apparatus  is  the  most  efficient  heater  for 
large  buildings  and  in  situations  where  there  are  bleak  winds. 
The  system  operates  by  a  low-pressure  steam  boiler  in  the  base- 
ment from  which  steam  rises  through  pipes  to  radiators ;  as  it  cools 
the  steam  changes  to  water,  which  runs  back  into  the  boiler 
(Fig.  48). 

Hot  Water  Heating. — A  cook  stove  often  has  a  water  back 
for  heating  the  hot  water  supply  of  the  house.  Pipes  are  let 


FIG.  49. — Diagram  showing  connection  of  hot-water  boiler  and  cookstove. 

through  the  back  of  the  fire  box,  and  by  circulation  of  cold  water 
from  the  bottom  at  a  lower  level  into  the  heater,  and  hot  water  at 
a  higher  level  on  the  return  from  the  water  back,  the  water  is 
heated  and  stored  as  hot  water  in  the  boiler  (Figs.  49,  50).  Simi- 
lar heating  coils  are  often  put  into  the  fire  boxes  of  furnaces. 
Special  water-heating  stoves  are  also  available  which  heat  water 
at  small  cost  with  a  coal  fire,  and  maintain  a  constant  supply  of  hot 
water.  The  latter  are  more  satisfactory,  as  water  heating  in  a 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


69 


stove  to  be  used  for  other  purposes  will  reduce  the  heat  efficiency 
of  the  stove.  It  will  take  more  coal  to  keep  up  the  same  degree 
of  heat. 

Gas  water-heading  is  a  very  convenient  method.     The  coiled 
water  pipe  (Fig.  51)  under  which  the  gas  flame  burns  is  the  sim- 


Fia.  50. — Hot-water  circulation. 


FIG.  51. — Gas  hot-water  heater.  This 
heater  may  be  used  with  the  boiler  which 
is  connected  with  the  cookstove.  When 
there  is  no  fire  in  the  coal  stove,  this  gas 
heater  will  heat  the  water  for  the  house, 
using  the  same  boiler. 


plest  type  and  may  be  attached  with  comparatively  small  cost  to 
any  boiler  that  may  be  installed  with  a  coal  range.  Its  special 
advantage  is  that  in  warm  weather  one  may  have  hot  water  when 
needed  and  not  have  the  continuous  heat  of  the  coal  range.  By 


70 


HOUSEWIFERY 


insulating  the  boiler  the  heated  water  may  be  kept  warm  for  several 
hours. 

Instantaneous  gas  water  heaters  may  be  placed  in  the  bathroom 
for  use  directly  with  the  tub  and  basin.  This  heater  is  chosen  for 
houses  where  there  is  no  hot-water  plumbing  system.  The  most 
convenient  gas  water  heater  is  the  automatic  heater  that  furnishes 
hot  water  all  over  the  house  on  the  turn  of  the  water  faucet  (Fig. 
62).  The  gas  burns  continuously  as  a  small  pilot  light,  and  when 
any  faucet  is  opened,  the  change  in  water  pressure  turns  the  gas 


Fia.  52. — Instantaneous  gas  hot-water  heater  for  bathroom. 

burner  on  full,  continuing  as  long  as  the  water  flows,  and  giving 
hot  water  immediately  and  as  long  as  the  faucet  is  opened.  Careless 
use  of  water  creates  a  large  gas  bill,  as  no  matter  how  long  the 
faucets  run,  the  gas  is  on  full  force. 

A  kerosene  hot-water  heater,  while  not  an  instantaneous  heater 
like  the  gas  heater,  makes  the  hot-water  problem  in  the  rural  home 
an  easy  one  if  there  is  a  water  system  to  force  the  water  through 
the  pipes  (Fig.  53). 

MAKING   AND   REGULATING   FIRES 

Starting  Fires  in  Stoves  or  Furnaces. — The  fire-box  or  grate 
should  be  free  from  all  ash  and  unburned  material.  Lay  the 
material  for  the  fire  firmly  but  loosely  so  that  when  the  fire  begins 
to  burn  it  will  settle  evenly  and  not  topple  over,  as  it  may,  reversing 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


71 


the  fuel.    The  easiest  burning  material  should  be  put  on  the  bottom, 
guch  as  paper,  or  shavings,  then  wood  and  then  coal.     As  a  great 


FIG.  53. — Blue  flame  hot-water  heater.     Such  a  heater  gives  great  service  in  houses  where 
there  is  no  coal  range  and  where  a  kerosene  cookstove  is  used  entirely. 

deal  of  heat  is  required  to  bring  the  coal  to  its  flaming  point,  start 
the  fire  with  only  enough  coal  to  cover  the  wood  lightly.  As  soon 
as  this  coal  is  hot  or  in  flame,  add  more.  Should  any  unburned  coal, 


72  HOUSEWIFERY 

not  clinkers,  be  left  from  a  former  fire,  it  may  be  added  to  the  fire 
when  it  is  clear,  hot,  and  thoroughly  established. 

The  clinkers  and  ashes  should  be  well  cleaned  out  each  day  at 
a  regular  time  and  coal  placed  on  the  fire  at  regular  times.  When 
the  fire  is  burned  day  in  and  day  out  it  is  cheaper  to  hold  the  fire 
over  at  night  as  it  will  take  more  coal  to  build  a  new  fire  than  to 
keep  an  old  fire. 

Grate  Fires. — When  a  grate  or  fireplace  fire  is  made,  the  same 
general  directions  should  be  followed.  In  making  a  grate  fire  the 
ashes  should  be  removed  so  as  to  have  free  access  of  air  to  the  fire. 
In  a  fireplace,  where  wood  is  burned,  the  andirons  or  two  or  three 
bricks  take  the  place  of  a  grate.  Usually  the  wood  ashes  are 
brushed  far  back  in  the  fireplace  and  left,  because  when  a  fire  is 
made  these  ashes  will  heat  and  assist  in  throwing  out  more  heat. 
It  is  an  economy  to  leave  them  sometimes  until  several  inches  deep 
but  always  pushed  back — so  far  back  as  not  to  blow  out,  and  so 
as  to  throw  the  heat  forward  into  the  room.  In  building  a  fire- 
place fire,  place  the  back  log  across  the  andirons,  lay  the  paper  or 
shavings  between  the  andirons,  and  cross  the  kindling  sticks  on  the 
paper,  but  more  in  a  hillock  shape  than  flat  as  when  making  a 
furnace  or  range  fire.  Lay  the  heavier  sticks  on  the  kindling  so  that 
as  the  flame  burns  along  the  kindling,  it  will  be  led  up  to  the 
heavier  log  that  has  been  placed  across  the  fire  on  the  andirons. 

A  back  log  is  a  great  help  in  building  a  fire.  Usually  a  heavy 
chunky  stick  of  hard  wood  is  chosen ;  and  it  often  lasts  from  one  fire 
to  another,  and  as  it  grows  smaller  may  be  brought  forward  and  a 
new  log  put  in.  To  keep  a  large  log  from  burning,  perhaps  late 
at  night  when  fire  is  no  longer  needed,  stand  the  burning  piece 
on  end  back  in  the  corner  or  against  the  side,  and  as  it  is  isolated 
from  the  heat  of  neighboring  pieces  it  will  stop  burning.  Such  a 
piece  can  be  used  on  the  next  fire. 

In  grate  fires  soft  coal  burns  with  a  yellow  flame,  and  because 
it  is  porous  and  full  of  gases  it  burns  quickly  and  makes  an  excellent 
grate  fire.  It  requires,  in  fact  will  stand,  only  little  handling, 
because  it  burns  slowly  and  steadily.  Small  paper  bags  filled  with 
hard  coal  can  be  laid  on  the  fire,  and  in  that  way  the  heavy  lifting, 
dirt  and  noise  of  shoveling  coal  in  the  grate  are  eliminated. 

In  regulating  the  dampers  of  stoves  and  furnaces,  opening  the 
lowest  front  damper  lets  in  air  which  will  feed  the  fire  and  assist 


HEATING    AND    LIGHTING 


73 


its  burning ;  opening  the  damper  connected  with  the  chimney  allows 
the  escape  of  carbon  dioxide  gas  and  water  (Fig.  54  A)  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  together  with  the  smoke,  and  assists  further  in  the  burning. 
Closing  these  dampers,  partly  or  entirely,  checks  the  fire  to  the 
same  degree.  In  a  cook  stove,  the  third  damper  controls  the  heating 
of  the  oven,  so  that  if  the  oven  is  to  be  heated  the  oven  damper 
should  be  closed.  This  will  keep  the  heat  from  going  out  of  the 
chimney  and  will  cause  it  to  go  in  a  roundabout  passage  behind 
and  under  the  oven.  This  is  called  the  indirect  draught  (Fig.  54  B). 


FIG.  54. — Diagram  of  coal  stove.    A,  direct  draught.    B,  indirect  draught.    From  Parloa's 
Home  Economics,  Century  Co. 

whereas  a  direct  turning  of  the  heat  up  the  chimney  from  the  fire- 
box is  called  the  direct  draught;  the  latter  is  used  especially  in 
starting  up  the  fire.  To  economize  with  fuel,  whether  the  oven  is  to 
be  used  or  not,  and  whether  a  cook  stove  or  a  furnace,  the  chimney 
damper  should  ordinarily  be  closed,  that  is,  the  indirect  draught 
should  be  used,  so  as  to  save  fuel  and  have  more  heat. 

In  taking  care  of  a  range  fire,  furnace  or  grate  fire,  do  not  pack 
on  too  much  coal.  Keep  the  coal  from  extending  beyond  the  lining 
of  the  fire-box,  keep  the  ash-pan  clean,  and  keep  the  fire  grate  free 
from  ashes,  so  as  to  let  in  air  and  prevent  the  grate  bars  from  being 
overheated.  If,  as  in  a  kitchen  range,  one  has  a  water  tank  in  the 
range,  be  sure  to  keep  the  ashes  away  from  that  part  of  the  grate 
which  is  to  heat  the  water.  These  water  pipes  are  usually  placed 
just  back  of  the  fire-brick  at  the  back  of  fire-box. 

Dampers  of  furnaces  may  be  operated  from  the  second  floor  b}7" 
having  chains  extend  up  through  the  floor  from  the  cellar.  The 


74  HOUSEWIFERY 

chain  has  a  ring  on  it  and  by  pulling  the  chain,  the  damper  door 
is  opened ;  the  ring  is  then  fastened  on  a  hook  and  so  long  as  it  is, 
the  damper  is  opened.  By  releasing  the  chain,  the  damper  is  allowed 
to  close.  This  simple  device  can  often  be  installed  by  the  man  of 
the  family;  its  cost  under  any  condition  is  nothing  in  comparison 
to  the  saving  of  strength  in  not  going  up  and  down  stairs  to  open 
and  close  the  draft.  With  a  furnace  well  cleaned  and  coaled  in  the 
morning,  the  regulating  of  dampers  during  the  day  is  usually  all 
the  care  the  fire  will  need  until  night.  The  man  can  attend  to  the 
fire  in  the  morning,  and  the  woman  easily  take  care  of  the  dampers 
during  the  day. 

Ash  Chutes. — In  planning  the  house,  ash  chutes  leading  from 
the  coal  range  or  fireplace  will  be  found  to  cost  little;  and  these 
will  accomplish  so  much  in  reducing  the  work  of  emptying  ashes 
and  the  subsequent  work  of  cleaning  up,  that  they  should  certainly 
be  included.  There  are  special  dustless  ash  trap-doors  for  fire- 
places that  are  devised  so  as  to  reduce  the  blowing  back  of  ashes 
when  they  are  dropped  down  the  chute. 

To  Remove  Clinkers  from  {he  Fire-pot. — Certain  coals  form 
more  clinkers  than  others,  and  if  the  fire  is  at  white  heat,  these 
clinkers  fuse  and  adhere  to  the  fire-brick.  To  break  them  off 
with  a  poker  is  likely  to  break  the  fire-brick,  so  they  are  best  re- 
moved by  using  oyster  shells  or  lime.  At  the  time  when  the  fire 
is  a  good  clear  red,  draw  the  hot  coals  away  from  the  fire-brick, 
drop  in  about  one  quart  of  oyster  shells,  or  a  pint  of  lime,  close  the 
door,  keep  the  fire  hot  and  the  lime  in  the  oyster  shell  will  cause 
the  clinkers  either  to  break  off  or  to  be  very  easily  tapped  off  with 
the  poker,  when  the  fire  is  out. 

Conservation  of  Heat. — Much  is  possible  to-day  in  the  way  of 
economizing  in  the  cost  of  fuel,  especially  by  proper  management 
of  fires.  There  are  also  several  special  devices  which  result  in  heat 
conservation. 

"  Simmering  Burner." — Gas  stoves  have  so-called  "  simmering 
burners/'  which  while  they  are  small  burners,  are  sufficiently  large 
to  keep  a  large  pot  at  simmering  temperature.  It  would  be  well 
for  the  housekeeper  in  purchasing  a  gas  stove  to  investigate  this 
question  as  to  whether  the  stove  has  a  small  simmering  burner; 
such  a  burner  can  also  be  put  on  old  stoves. 

Gas  Stove  Tops. — Tops  are  made  of  cast-iron  like  the  top  of  a 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


75 


kitchen  range,  which  may  be  fitted  to  the  entire  top  of  the  gas  stove, 
and  smaller  ones  are  available  that  cover  two  burners  (Fig.  55). 
The  idea  of  this  top  is  that  with  the  heat  of  one  burner  two  kettles 
may  be  used  for  cooking,  with  the  more  direct  heat  for  the  kettle 
directly  over  the  burner,  and  the  radiated  heat  for  the  kettle  over  a 
burner  that  is  not  lighted.  The  idea  is  the  same  as  cooking  on  the 
back  of  a  coal  stove  when  the  fire  is  in  the  front. 


FIG.  55. — Cast-iron  top  for  a  gas  stove.  This  is  a  good  means  of  saving  gas.  The  heat 
of  the  flame  under  the  front  burner  is  sufficient  for  slow  cooking  on  the  back  burner.  Such 
a  top  makes  the  gas  stove  top  like  the  coal  stove. 

Economical  Utensils. — More  saving  of  the  fuel  is  accomplished 
than  one  would  realize  by  using  the  proper  kind  of  saucepans ;  pans 
with  a  broad  bottom  will  heat  more  quickly  and  make  more  econom- 
ical use  of  the  gas  than  those  that  have  small  bottoms  and  flare  at  the 
top.  Covers  to  saucepans  also  conserve  the  heat,  and  hence  save 
fuel.  Burners  that  are  flaring  up  the  side  of  the  saucepan  do  not 
give  so  much  heat  as  those  that  are  turned  down  enough  to  keep 
the  heat  directly  under  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  The  actual  fuel 
cost  for  heating  pans  of  different  types  of  metal  is  approximately 
the  same  when  the  conditions  are  the  same,  so  that  it  is  more 
the  way  the  burner  is  operated  and  the  shape  of  the  pan  than  it  is 
the  material  of  which  the  pan  is  constructed,  that  secures  economy. 


76  HOUSEWIFERY 

Dampers. — Saving  of  coal  and  wood  in  kitchen  stoves  is  brought 
about  through  the  proper  adjustment  of  dampers.  The  most  com- 
mon waste  of  fuel  is  by  keeping  the  oven  damper  open,  that  is, 
sending  a  direct  current  up  the  chimney  and  thus  forcing  the  fire 
to  burn  more  rapidly  while  the  heat  escapes  up  the  flue.  The  lower 
damper  will  also  cause  more  rapid  burning  but  not  so  rapid  when  the 
oven  damper  is  closed.  Ashes  in  the  fire  will  waste  fuel  because 
often  it  will  check  the  fire  so  much  that  it  dies  out,  and  the  unburned 
fuel  is  usually  wasted  with  the  ashes  in  cleaning 
out  the  fire-box  and  starting  a  new  fire, 
wsu.  BAND  When  the  fire  is  not  in  use,  leave  it  clear,  that 

is,  clean  from  ashes  with  a  light  covering  of  coal, 
with  the  lower  front  damper  closed,  the  oven 
damper  closed,  and  the  upper  front  damper  open. 
Insulation. — Covering   the   hot   air,   steam, 
FIG.  56.— insulated     and  hot-water  pipes  (Fig.  56)  leading  from  the 
°tesy atof     furnace  with  insulation  covering  will  do  much 
Journal'     ^°  conserve  the  heat.     This  asbestos  covering 
comes  in  sections  with  metal  bands  to  hold  it 
in  place.    It  is  an  easy  matter  to  attach  them.    An  insulating  jacket 
for  the  hot-water  boiler  can  be  had  for  a  few  dollars. 

Fireless  cookers  are  at  once  fuel  and  labor  savers.  They  are 
labor  savers  in  that  they  reduce  the  work  of  constantly  attending 
to  food  in  the  cooking  process.  The  cooking  time  is  longer  than 
with  a  stove,  and  with  many  foods  it  is  so  long  that  the  housewife 
may  go  about  other  work  or  pleasure  for  several  hours.  The  time 
required  to  cook  each  thing  is  quite  definite,  and  not  indefinite  as  so 
many  seem  to  think.  Food  should  not  be  left  in  so  long  that  it 
not  only  cooks,  but  has  time  to  over-cook,  and  finally  cool  in  the 
kettle.  Constant  steaming  and  cooling  of  foods  will  give  the  cooker 
a  strong  odor,  and  will  give  the  food  a  strong  flavor  that  has  been 
called  a  "cooker  taste."  To  overcome  this  give  kettles  and  boxes 
thorough  airing  when  not  in  use. 

The  first  fireless  cooker  was  a  hay  box  in  which  the  European 
peasant  placed  hot  dishes,  with  the  idea  that  when  set  in  this  non- 
conducting material  they  would  finish  cooking  while  the  workers 
went  about  their  work.  Inexpensive  cookers  may  be  made  with 
wooden  flour  pails  or  boxes  filled  with  insulating  material  (Fig.  57), 
or  when  camping,  may  be  made  by  digging  a  hole  in  the  ground. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


77 


The  kettle  in  which,  the  food  is  heated  must  have  a  tight-fitting 
cover;  the  non-conducting  material  should  be  as  free  from  odor  as 
possible,  such  as  asbestos,  excelsior,  crushed  newspaper,  bran,  clean 
straw,  or  cotton  (Fig.  58).  The  care  of  such  a  cooker  is  greater 
than  of  the  manufactured  ones,  because  the  filling  will  soon  need 


FIG.  57. — Home-made  fireless  cooker.  Any  convenient  box  may  be  used  and  any  can 
of  convenient  size,  such  as  a  lard  can,  etc.  The  cans  should  be  wrapped  with  about  4  or  5 
layers  of  asbestos  paper.  The  space  around  the  cans  should  be  at  least  2  inches  and  filled 
with  straw  or  wood  shavings,  etc.  The  top  of  the  cans  should  be  covered  with  a  pad. 

to  be  changed,  and  because  the  kettles  in  the  manufactured  cookers 
are  aluminum  with  clamped  covers,  and  non-rusting  (Fig.  59) .  Such 
aluminum  fireless  cooker  kettles  can,  however,  be  purchased  sepa- 
rately for  use  in  home-made  cookers. 

The  cookers  are  manufactured  to  meet  all  needs,  so  one  will 
find  cookers  with  one,  two,  three,  or  four  compartments,  with  kettles 


78 


HOUSEWIFERY 


I   "Jf 


of  various  sizes,  and  even  in  nests  of  small  ones  so  that  several  dif- 
ferent foods  may  be  cooked  simultaneously. 

The  essential  thing  for  the  housewife  to  know  is  the  standard 
requirements  for  a  good  fireless  cooker : 
The  box  to  have  good  insulation. 

The  kettles  to  have  good,  tightly-clamped  covers,  to  be .  non- 
rusting. 

The  lining  of  compartments  to  be  non-absorbing  and  easily 

cleaned — preferably  aluminum. 
Soap  stones  or  iron  plates 
provided  for  roasting,  baking, 
and  long  boiling. 

The  efficiency  of  the  fireless 
cooker  is  greatly  increased  by 
raising  it  from  the  floor  to  save 
bending  and  stooping  on  the 
part  of  the  worker.  The  fireless 
cooker  gives  only  fifty  per  cent, 
of  its  efficiency  if  operated  in 
conjunction  with  a  coal  stove. 
The  amount  of  fuel  and  the 
time  necessary  for  a  coal  stove 
to  get  a  kettle  of  water  to  boil- 
ing temperature  or  a  stone  disc 
hot  enough  to  roast  or  bake, 
means  enough  fire  to  cook  food 
for  a  long  time,  perhaps  long 
enough  to  finish  the  process. 
For  this  reason  a  small  gas 
burner  or  a  blue  flame  stove 
will  make  the  fireless  cooker 
more  of  a  fuel-  and  labor-saver  than  it  is  with  a  coal  range. 

In  the  fireless  cooker  gas  stove,  the  fireless  cooker  principle  is 
combined  with  the  gas  stove  by  making  the  oven  with  insulated 
walls  to  retain  heat;  this  type  of  stove,  properly  used,  is  very  eco- 
nomical. One  or  two  of  the  burners  on  the  top  of  some  stoves  have 
a  non-conducting  hood  that  may  be  lowered  over  the  kettle,  and  at 
once,  without  lifting  or  changing,  the  food  is  in  the  fireless  cooker. 
The  ovens  are  so  insulated  that  when  the  baking  temperature  is 


Fiq.  58. — Home-made  fireless  cooker. 
A,  outside  container-box  or  trunk;  B,  insu- 
lating material — paper,  sawdust,  cinders;  C, 
metal  lining  of  nest — tin,  zinc,  aluminum;  D, 
cooking  kettle — aluminum,  agate;  E,  soap- 
stone  plate,  or  some  heat-containing  material; 
F,  pad  of  excelsior  for  covering;  G,  hinged 
cover  for  the  top  of  the  outside. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 


79 


reached,  the  fire  may  be  turned  out  and  the  temperature  is  practically 
sustained  until  the  baking  or  roasting  is  completed  in  the  fireless 
cooker  oven. 

Vacuum  bottles  or  containers  are  constructed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  fireless  cooker;  while  primarily  a  convenience,  they  do 
indirectly  save  fuel.  They  are  double-walled  glass  containers  with  a 
metal  jacket.  The  air  is  exhausted  from  between  these  two  glass 


FIG.  59. — Caloric  fireless  cooker. 

walls,  thus  forming  a  vacuum,  and  several  linings  of  non-conducting 
material  assist  in  retaining  either  heat  or  cold.  The  inside  is  sil- 
vered like  a  mirror,  because  the  bright  surface  prevents  radiation 
of  heat.  The  vacuum  bottle  has  a  tight  cork  and  screw  top  so  as  to 
prevent  leakage  of  either  heat  or  cold.  In  the  new  models  the 
metal  outer  jacket  can  be  unscrewed  so  that  a  new  inner  container 
may  replace  a  broken  one,  thus  saving  in  renewal  cost. 

LIGHTING 

In  building,  one  should  study  the  location  of  lighting  fixtures 
carefully,  both  ceiling  lights  and  wall  lights;  with  electricity,  one 
should  also  locate  "  plugs  "  in  the  baseboard  for  attaching  vacuum 
cleaners,  cooking  appliances,  etc.  Placing  lights  in  rooms  and  halls 


§0  HOUSEWIFERY 

is  Teally  a  matter  for  much  thought,  because  bad  positions  are  not 
only  inconvenient,  but  too  often  mean  unnecessary  expense  through 
having  more  burners  lighted  than  is  necessary.  A  good  droplight 
for  reading  and  sewing  requires  only  one  burner,  and  will  give  more 
and  better  light  directly  on  the  user  at  less  cost  than  several  ceil- 
ing light. 

Types  of  shades  influence  the  clearness  of  the  light,  and,  like 
wall-paper,  increase  or  decrease  the  amount  of  light  used.  The 
following  table  showing  degrees  of  light  absorption  by  different 
types  of  glass  shades  is  interesting  for  a  study  of  comparisons : 

*    (  Percent. 

Clear  glass   5-12 

Slightly  ground   25 

Ground  all  over 25-40 

Opal 35-60 

Colored  or  painted 64 

White  or  light  linings  to  dark  shades  will  give  a  clear  light  most 
pleasant  to  the  eyes. 

Some  modern  lighting  uses  the  principle  of  indirect  lighting  or 
reflection  (Fig.  60).  The  light  burns  in  a  bowl  fixture  hanging  from 
the  ceiling;  the  light  is  reflected  to  the  ceiling,  and  this,  in  turn, 
reflects  it  to  the  room.  The  angle  of  light  is  broadened  and  so 
spreads  over  the  room  surface.  Such  a  light  gives  a  brilliantly 
lighted  room,  without  the  softening  effects  of  any  shadows.  It  is 
most  suitable  for  show  rooms,  stores,  and  large  home  rooms  requiring 
clear,  strong  light.  One  would  hardly  depend  entirely  upon  indirect 
lighting  in  bedrooms  and  libraries,  as  the  light  is  tiresome  because 
so  general.  To  soften  it,  one  would  find  relief  in  a  dull  opalescent 
or  ground  bowl,  which  absorbs  some  of  the  light. 

Paraffin  candles  are  most  attractive,  for  occasional  use,  at 
least,  in  dining  rooms,  and  for  convenience  in  going  about  the  house 
where  there  are  no  lights,  provided  one  burns  the  better  non- 
smokeless,  non-drip  candles.  Such  a  candle  will  soon  prove  its  value, 
because  there  will  be  no  unpleasant  smoke  odor  and  no  dripping  of 
paraffme  which,  whether  white  or  colored,  is  hard  to  remove. 

Kerosene  lamps  give  an  excellent  light  when  kept  in  good 
condition — properly  filled,  clean  wick,  and  clean  chimney.  The 
light  is  a  soft  yellow,  and  is  most  pleasant.  Kerosene  lamps,  how- 
ever, do  involve  much  care,  give  off  a  great  deal  of  heat  in  the 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  81 

room,  consume  much  oxygen,  and  the  smoke  and  odor  from  either 
a  dirty  lamp  or  one  turned  low  is  disagreeable.  The  chief  reasons 
for  their  use  are  that  the  first  cost  is  low,  the  fuel  is  easily  obtained, 
and  no  expensive  system  is  necessary.  Kerosene  lighting  varies  in  its 
efficiency  according  to  the  type  of  burner  used.  Of  ordinary  wick 
burners,  those  with  round,  hollow  wick  and  a  center  draft  to  furnish 
air  within  the  flame  are  especially  good.  The  kerosene  mantle  lamp, 
the  newest  type  of  kerosene  lamp,  has  a  mantle  which  increases  the 
brilliancy  of  the  light  four-fold,  with  no  extra  cost  for  fuel.  The 


CE/L/N6 


L/GHT  /?/?£* 
FIQ.  60. — Inverted  lighting.     Specially  suited  for  lighting  large  rooms. 

mantle  must  be  handled  as  carefully  as  a  gas  mantle  and  the  wick 
must  be  kept  carefully  trimmed.  To  clean  kerosene  lamps,  see 
chapter  on  Cleaning,  page  250. 

Acetylene  and  "  Presto  "  (condensed  acetylene)  may  be  used 
with  mantles  like  gas.  Such  a  means  of  lighting  is  most  adaptable 
to  rural  homes  and  to  camps.  Any  gas  fixture  can  be  used,  but  the 
tip  must  be  double  so  that  the  flames  coming  from  two  opposite 
holes  in  the  burner  strike  each  other  and  spread  the  flame. 

In  an  acetylene  house-lighting  system,  a  tank  is  provided  where 
the  gas  is  stored  as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  and  from  this  tank  the 
supply  pipes  branch. 

Gas  Lights. — Unless  gas  is  supplied  with  a  special  burner,  it 
burns  with  a  yellow  light,  and  it  requires  a  globe  or  lamp  shade 
to  give  service  which  is  at  all  satisfactory.  The  old-fashioned  gas- 
tip  spreads  the  flame  into  a  so-called  "bat's  wing"  (see  Fig.  37), 
or  "fish  tail,"  light.  The  newer  burners,  called  "  Welsbach," 
6 


82 


HOUSEWIFERY 


are  Bunsen  gas  burners,  which  mix  air  with  the  gas  before  it  is 
burned,  and  burn  the  flame  into  a  white  mantle  (Fig.  61).  This 
mantle  becomes  incandescent  or  glowing  white,  but  does  not  itself 
burn.  The  mantle  is  often  mounted  on  a  calcium  rod  which,  when 
heated,  reflects  a  white  glow,  so  that  the  entire  Welsbach  light  is  a 
white  light,  very  clear,  burning  without  soot.  These  mantles  are 

very  frail,  and  will  last  much  longer 
in  places  where  there  is  no  jarring 
and  no  draft.  Should  they  blacken 
in  burning,  it  means  that  there  is 
not  enough  air  going  in  from  below 
to  oxidize  the  flame.  To  clear  the 
mantle,  open  the  ventilator  wide  and 
let  the  gas  burn  until  all  the  soot  is 
burned  off.  For  a  few  minutes  the 
light  will  not  be  so  good,  but  after 
the  mantle  is  cleared,  the  regulator 
may  be  readjusted  to  give  a  good  clear 
light.  An  old  mantle  may  be  saved, 
and  may  be  used  as  a  silver  powder 
for  cleaning  silver. 

Electric  lamps  have  been  im- 
proved since  'the  first  carbon  lights, 
so  that  they  give  a  whiter  light,  and 
at  the  same  time  use  less  electricity. 
The  electric  bulbs  are  vacuum  glass 
globes  in  which  a  filament  has  been 
put  before  sealing  the  bulb;  the  air 
is  exhausted  so  that  when  the  lamp 
is  heated  there  is  no  air  present  to 

oxidize  the  filament.  The  first  lamp  filament  used  was  of  carbon, 
and  is  relatively  inefficient  because  it  uses  so  much  electricity.  The 
most  modern  filament  is  the  tungsten,  which  gives  a  clear  light 
with  a  small  consumption  of  electricity.  The  different  degrees  of 
brightness  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  filament  and  upon  its  com- 
position. The  modern  tungsten  filament  is,  for  example,  a  finer 
filament  than  the  carbon,  and  yet  gives  a  greater  light.  A  sixteen 
candle-power  light,  while  using  fifty-five  watts  with  a  carbon  filament, 
consumes  in  the  same  time  only  twenty-five  watts  with  a  tungsten 
filament,  making  the  consumption  cost  in  the  latter  case  about  one- 
half  of  the  former. 


GASCHECK 


FIG.  61. — Bunsen  burner. 
Produces  a  white  light  by  heating 
a  mantle  to  incandescence. 


HEATING  AND  LIGHTING  83 

It  pays  to  use  electric  lamps  of  two  or  three  sizes  in  an  ordinary 
household.  A  fifteen-watt  lamp  will  do  for  closets  and  other  places 
requiring  little  light ;  a  forty-watt  lamp  is  generally  useful ;  a  sixty- 
watt  lamp  will  illuminate  where  a  single  larger  light  is  desired. 

Lighting  Hints. — It  requires  more  light  in  a  room  with  dark 
walls  than  with  white  ones. 

A  flickering  or  dazzling  light  produces  eye  strain  and  headache. 

The  light  should  come  from  above  and  over  the  shoulder. 

Be  economical  by  turning  lights  out,  when  not  in  use. 

A  modern  lighting  system  should  not  be  selected  on  the  basis 
of  economy  alone.  Money  spent  in  proper  lighting  may  be  saved 
in  the  oculist's  bill. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  main  factors  in  successfully  lighting  a  room? 

2.  Why  is  it  i/ecessary  to  heat  above  normal  temperature  a  very  damp 
room  before  the  occupant  will  feel  comfortable? 

3.  Why  will  a  fireplace  or  stove  smoke  when  the  fire  is  first  started? 

4.  Why  do  tall  chimneys  have  a  better  draft  than  short  chimneys  ? 

5.  If  one  were  camping,  how  could  a  tireless  cooker  be  made? 

6.  What  causes  the  water  to  rise  in  a  coffee  percolator? 

7.  In  what  ways  might  a  housewife's  electric  light  bills  be  reduced? 

8.  What  is  the  advantage  and  disadvantage  of  a  highly  polished  stove? 

9.  Why  is  not  a  fireplace  as  economical  as  a  stove? 

10.  How  may  you  prevent  too  much  heat  from  going  to  the  attic  radiators 

at  the  expense  of  those  on  the  other  floors? 

11.  Give  methods  of  heating  water.     How  does  this  affect  the  coal  bill? 
Describe  coils  in  a  furnace.    What  precaution  must  be  taken  with  them? 

REFERENCES 
DRESSLER,    FLETCHER    B.,    RURAL    SCHOOLHOUSES    AND   GROUNDS.      U.    S. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  12. 
FARMERS'  BULLETIN  771,  HOME-MADE  FIRELESS  COOKERS  AND  THEIR  USE. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 

HOGDON,  D.  R.,  ELEMENTARY  GENERAL  SCIENCE.    Hinds,  Hayden  &  Eldridge. 
KING,    F.   H.,   VENTILATION   FOR   DWELLINGS    AND   RURAL   SCHOOLS,    ETC. 

F.  H.  King. 
LANCASTER,    MAUD,    ELECTRIC    COOKING,    HEATING,    CLEANING.      D.    Van 

Nostrand  Co. 
LUCKIESH,  M.,  LIGHTING  THE  HOME.    The  Century  Co. 

McPHERSON   AND  HENDERSON,   GENERAL    CHEMISTRY.     Ginn  &   Co. 

ROSENAU,  MILTON,  J.,  PREVENTIVE  MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE.     Appleton  Co. 
U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  MINES,  SAVING  FUEL  IN  HEATING  A  HOUSE.     Technical 

Paper  No.  97. 

U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS,  SAFETY  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD.   Circular  No.  75. 
VULTE,  HERMAN,  HOUSEHOLD  CHEMISTRY.  Chemical  Publishing  Co. 
WHITE,  MARION,  FUELS  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD.     Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 
WRIGHT,  S.  S.,  THE  KITCHEN  FIRE  AND  How  TO  RUN  IT.     S.  S.  Wright. 


CHAPTER  IV 
EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING   APPLIANCES— I 

GENERAL  EQUIPMENT;   KITCHEN 

GIVEN  a  house  with  installation  of  plumbing,  heating,  and 
lighting,  the  next  problem  is  adequate  working  equipment  for  the 
tasks  of  the  household.  Working  equipment  involves  the  tools, 
machinery,  and  other  conveniences  of  various  kinds — some  of  them 
often  called  labor  savers — which  are  used  in  house  work. 

The  subject  is  presented  in  two  chapters:  In  this  chapter  the 
general  principles  regarding  selection  and  placing  of  working 
equipment  are  stated,  and  the  equipment  of  the  kitchen  is  de- 
scribed; in  the  next  chapter  (V)  the  equipment  for  the  laundry  is 
presented,  together  with  equipment  for  cleaning  and  miscellaneous 
tasks.  In  the  succeeding  chapter  (VI),  household  supplies  which 
are  used  with  equipment  in  household  work  are  described. 

Besides  this  working  equipment,  the  household  has  its  furnish- 
ings for  comfort  and  immediate  satisfaction  in  use,  rather  than 
for  work,  such  as  furniture,  hangings,  etc.;  these  are  discussed 
in  a  later  chapter  (VII)  on  household  furnishings. 

Selecting  Equipment. — In  buying  equipment,  the  housewife  is 
buying  her  working  tools.  This  involves  a  certain  amount  of  ex- 
pense, and  should  mean  that  many  of  the  things  that  are  bought  are 
not  to  be  renewed  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  This,  then, 
requires  study  on  the  part  of  the  homekeeper  so  as  to  be  able  to 
answer  the  question,  "What  is  a  good  tool?"  In  answer  to  that 
question,  .the  following  outline  may  help : 

Construction —  Utility — 

Size  Wearing  capacity 

Shape  Renewal 

Material  Economy — 

Efficiency —  Purchasing  cost 

Fitted  to  its  task  Renewal  cost 

Results  obtained  Care  cost 

Time  saved  Related  costs,  as  supplies 

Labor  saved 
84 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  85 

Construction  considered  in  detail  means — Is  the  tool  of  the  proper 
shape  to  be  fitted  to  its  task  ?  With  the  shape,  the  size  is  naturally 
considered.  It  is  the  old  question  of  avoiding  the  round  peg  in 
a  square  hole.  The  proper  material  is  also  essential  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  tool.  Some  types  of  fibre,  for  example,  are  better  for 
scrubbing,  or  certain  soft  hair  is  better  for  brushing;  some  woods 
wear  longer  than  others ;  solid  backs  to  brushes  will  outwear  a  glued 
or  tacked  back. 

Utility  and  Efficiency  are  in  fact  related  matters,  but  one  may 
consider  utility  as  involving  wearing  power  and  the  possibility 
of  freshening  or  renewing  the  tool  so  that  it  is  as  good  as  new, 
without  the  expense  being  as  great  as  that  of  first  cost.  Efficiency 
has  to  do  with  its  power  to  do  its  work,  depending  upon  the  shape  of 
the  tool,  its  size,  etc.  It  means  this  also — Does  it  take  more  time 
to  use  the  tool  and  to  care  for  it  after  use,  than  it  does  to  do  the 
work  without  the  tool?  If  it  is  efficient,  good  or  better  results 
should  be  obtained,  and  time  and  labor  should  be  saved  by  it. 

Economy  involves  a  careful  comparison  between  the  cost  of  one 
tool  and  the  cost  of  another,  the  decision  to  come  after  answering 
for  both  tools  the  other  requirements — Is  it  well  constructed,  has 
it  wearing  capacity,  and  is  it  efficient?  If,  in  two  tools — brushes 
or  dusters  or  brooms — the  conditions  are  equal,  then  the  eco- 
nomical housewife  should  always  buy  the  cheaper.  She  should 
be  sure,  however,  that  whether  the  cost  be  little  or  much,  the 
tool  can,  by  proper  care  (cleaning  or  oiling,  etc.),  be  used  for  a 
reasonable  period  of  service,  thus  eliminating  excessive  cost  of 
purchasing  new  tools.  Sometimes  a  tool  takes  much  time  and 
labor  in  caring  for  it,  and  is  therefore  not  an  economy  but  rather 
a  hindrance.  The  matter  of  additional  costs  involved  in  the  use  of 
the  tool,  as  for  supplies,  fuel,  etc.,  should  also  be  considered. 

Labor-saving  Appliances. — There  are  a  number  of  larger 
labor-saving  appliances  such  as  the  vacuum  cleaner  and  the  washing 
machine,  which  must  be  given  serious  consideration.  One  must  not, 
however,  judge  them  solely  in  terms  of  the  purchasing  cost.  Granted 
that  it  is  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the  first  expenditure,  it  is  not 
fair  to  look  at  it  except  in  a  business-like  way,  and  to  compare  this 
purchasing  cost  with  the  manpower  cost  of  the  same  labor.  This 
cost  study  should  be  made  in  the  same  way  that  an  investment  is 
considered.  When  one  makes  an  investment,  it  is  not  expected 
to  yield  an  income  within  a  week,  but  only  after  a  reasonable 


86  HOUSEWIFERY 

of  time — a  year  or  more.  In  just  the  same  way,  it  is  not  fair  to 
expect  a  motor  washer  to  pay  for  itself  in  one  washing.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  appliance  that  breaks  down  after  one  or  two  trials  is  a 
poor  investment,  no  matter  how  little  it  costs.  One  must  figure 
the  gain  or  loss  on  the  basis  of  one  year,  or  five  years.  One  must 
figure  on  the  renewal  cost  in  the  way  of  repairs,  and  of  keeping  in 
working  order ;  the  income  from  the  investment  by  the  amount  and 
quality  of  work  done  under  the  new  method  as  compared  with  the 
old;  the  income  through  saving  the  housewife  from  fatigue,  and 
allowing  time  for  other  productive  work  such  as  mending,  making 
and  renovating  of  furnishings  and  garments,  which  otherwise  must 
be  hired  out  at  considerable  cost ;  and  the  income  through  allowing 
more  time  and  energy  for  the  necessary  mental  and  spiritual  life 
for  the  housewife  and  her  family. 

The  only  time  when  labor  savers  are  not  an  investment  is  when 
they  are  hastily  bought  without  study  to  find  the  best  for  the 
money ;  without  definite  knowledge  of  how  to  operate  them.  Under 
these  conditions  they  may  come  into  a  home  either  to  be  so  poorly 
operated  that  their  efficiency  is  greatly  reduced ;  or  not  to  be  used  at 
all,  as  is  often  the  case  when  the  housewife  does  not  learn  how  to 
operate  them  and  cannot  teach  the  maid  to  use  them. 

Labor  savers,  however,  do  not  necessarily  mean  mechanical 
equipment  with  motors  and  pulleys,  or  vacuums  and  cylinders,  or 
pressure  and  weight.  Every  tool,  no  matter  how  simple,  and  every 
convenience  in  work,  is  a  labor  saver.  Here  is  where  the  housewife's 
study  may  open  a  door  towards  saving,  by  putting  herself  in  a 
receptive  frame  of  mind,  and  becoming  willing  to  shift  from  old 
habits  and  methods.  The  simplest  labor  saver  of  all  is  to  raise  the 
height  of  working  surfaces,  to  create  a  close  working  relationship 
between  tools,  and  to  group  tools  about  the  working  center  in  which 
they  are  to  be  used. 

Placing  Equipment. — Much  has  been  said  in  recent  years  on  the 
efficiency  produced  by  grouping  together  the  tools  that  belong  to  a 
process.  This  is  most  helpful  and  is  one  of  the  best  ways  to  reduce 
effort  and  fatigue  in  housework.  It  is  this  principle  that  suggests 
two  cleaning  closets  for  two  floor  levels,  each  closet  equipped  with 
its  own  working  outfit  so  as  to  avoid  the  waste  of  time  and  effort 
in  going  over  the  stairs,  and  leaving  one's  work  to  go  after  the  tools. 
Racks  and  shelves  placed  near  the  stove,  near  the  sink,  near  the 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  87 

kitchen  table,  make  possible  this  grouping  of  tools,  which  is  espe- 
cially of  service  at  these  working  centers.  The  working  centers 
themselves  should  be  so  related  that  every  possible  extra  step  and 
movement  is  saved.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  kitchen  and  in 
the  laundry,  where  there  are  more  permanent  pieces  of  equipment 
and  more  detailed  processes  of  operation.  These  facts  of  relationship 
of  stationary  equipment,  height  of  working  surfaces,  and  grouping 
of  tools  in  best  positions  are  all  points  to  study  and  thoroughly 
work  out  when  the  house  is  planned,  as  it  is  often  impossible  to  do 
it  afterward  without  great  inconvenience  and  expense.  Even  so, 
the  saving  in  years  of  work  which  is  to  be  done  in  the  house  that  is 
bought  finished  may  warrant  the  cost  of  extensive  alterations. 

A  good  way  to  make  this  study  is  to  take  the  architect's  plan 
of  the  kitchen,  pantry,  or  laundry,  and  imagine  it  is  a  real  room  and 
do  the  work  in  it.  For  example,  let  the  housekeeper  pretend  she  is 
preparing  creamed  potatoes,  remembering  to  begin  by  going  after 
the  potatoes.  Where  are  they — down  cellar,  back  porch,  or  the  wood- 
shed? Now  carry  them  through  all  the  processes — washing  them, 
paring,  boiling,  draining  after  cooking,  getting  butter,  cream,  salt, 
pepper,  dish ;  and,  lastly,  how  far  is  it  to  the  dining  room  ?  Creamed 
potatoes  are  not  the  real  question ;  the  question  is,  have  we  arranged 
all  working  centers  so  that  they  lead  one  to  the  other,  or  are  we 
walking  miles  because  we  have  not  planned  the  kitchen  properly  ? 

Believing  each  room  should,  for  efficiency,  be  a  well-equipped 
workshop,  it  is  wise  for  one  to  plan  separate  sets  of  equipment  for 
each  working  center.  If  it  is  necessary  to  economize  with  money, 
of  course  some  tools  must  be  used  in  two  places,  but  the  disadvantage 
is  that  the  tool  is  rarely  ready  for  use,  when  and  where  it  is  wanted. 

Height  of  Working  Surfaces. — The  equipment  being  chosen, 
much  may  be  added  to  the  satisfactory  workshop  by  having  the  sta- 
tionary tools,  such  as  sinks,  tables,  washtubs,  and  stoves,  placed  at 
good  working  height.  A  low  working  surface  means  a  crouched,  un- 
comfortable position;  it  means  unnecessary  muscular  fatigue  in 
bending  and  stooping  many  times ;  it  means  backache  and  compressed 
lungs,  all  of  which  increase  fatigue.  The  housekeeper  who  goes  into 
a  new  house,  over  which  she  is  giving  her  share  of  intelligent  super- 
vision, will  insist  upon  raising  the  working  levels  of  most  of  the 
permanent  tools.  Sinks  have  usually  been  set  too  low,  most  wash- 
tubs  have  given  the  feeling  of  going  head  first  into  them,  and 


88 


HOUSEWIFERY 


tables  are  ordinarily  far  too  low.  Keep  in  mind  that  the  bottom 
of  the  sink  rather  than  the  top  is  the  working  level,,  and  that  the  side 
of  the  washtub  rather  than  the  bottom,,  and  that  the  top  of  the  table,, 
are  the  places  for  work. 

It  is  easy  for  the  housekeeper  to  raise  the  working  surfaces  of 
tables  and  stoves;  this  is  possible  by  means  of  blocks  placed  under 


FIG.  62. — One  working  surface  and  three  workers.     The  height  of  the  regular  kitchen  table 
is  suited  only  to  the  one  worker  who  is  abnormally  short. 

them.  Sinks  and  tubs,  unfortunately,  when  once  set,  can  only  be 
readjusted  at  a  cost  of  some  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  each  time,  because 
the  plumbing  law  requires  that  there  be  tight  connections  in  the 
drains  of  the  sink  or  tub.  Naturally  these  drains  are  not  elastic 
or  telescoped,  so  that  up  to  the  present  time  sinks  and  tubs  cannot 
be  readily  raised  or  lowered.  (See  chapter  on  Plumbing,  page  48.) 
To  help  the  housewife  plan  the  height  of  working  surfaces  like 
sinks,  tables,  etc.,  it  is  well  for  her  to  stop  to  consider  what  her  body 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


position  would  be  if  she  did  the  work  comfortably,  and  to  notice 
how  she  has  been  forced  to  stand  because  in  all  these  years  the 
stationary  equipment  has  been  set  too  low  (Fig.  62).  .Dishwash- 
ing, preparing  vegetables,  beating  cakes,  and  mixing  bread  are  done 
with  the  arms  bent  at  right  angles  at  the  elbow.  If  the  surface  is  too 
low,  the  body  is  bent  down, 
giving  fatigue  at  the  waist 
line  (Fig.  63).  If  the  sur- 
face is  too  high,  a  raised  arm 
and  shoulder  position  brings 
the  ache  of  fatigue  up  higher 
between  the  shoulders  in- 
stead of  at  the  back  waist 
line.  The  table  top  can  be 
higher  than  the  sink  bottom, 
the  placing  of  the  sink  de- 
pending on  its  depth;  the 
bottom  of  a  deep  sink  cannot 
be  mounted  as  high  as  the 
bottom  of  a  shallow  one,  be- 
cause the  worker  can  not 
reach  over  the  high  wall  of 
a  deep  sink  if  it  is  elevated 
too  much ;  the  worker's  arm 
is  used  with  the  least  strain 
when  not  constantly  bent  at 
the  wrist. 

Levels  may  be  lower  for 
washing  clothes  on  a  wash- 
board, ironing,  kneading 
bread,  and  in  any  process  where  there  is  need  of  pressure,  because  the 
angle  at  the  elbow  becomes  wider  and  the  arm  line  more  nearly 
straight  so  as  to  produce  leverage. 

Let  the  housewife  practice  doing  most  of  her  work  with  her 
back  straight ;  if  bending  is  necessary  with  her  work,  bend  forward 
at  the  hips,  not  at  the  waist;  better,  raise  the  working  surfaces  so 
that  the  body  need  not  bend  at  waist  or  shoulders  to  reach  to  the 
work.  Just  how  many  inches  high  should  a  working  surface  be? 
That  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  worker's  height,  and  there  is  no 


FIG.  63. — The  top  of  this  tub  is  36  inches 
from  the  floor.  Note  good  position  of 
worker's  back. 


90  HOUSEWIFERY 

better  rule  than  to  observe  oneself  and  experiment.  For  persons  of 
medium  height — 5  feet,  6  inches,  or  thereabouts — tables  for  standing 
work  should  be  about  33-38  inches  high;  kitchen  sinks  should  be 
about  34-40  inches  to  the  top ;  and  washtubs  about  36-40  inches  to 
the  roll  of  the  tub. 

Surfaces  for  standing  work  are  of  course  higher  than  those  for 
sitting  work  (28-31  inches).  Tables  and  other  surfaces  should  be 
usually  put  at  a  standing  height.  There  should  always  be  a  high 
stool  available  so  that  as  much  work  as  possible  may  be  done  sitting. 
The  height  of  shelves  where  equipment  is  to  be  put  away  is  also 
important;  avoid  as  much  as  possible  stooping  down  and  stretching 
up  high.  Put  heavy  equipment  on  lower  shelves. 

KITCHEN  EQUIPMENT 
SUGGESTIONS  FOB  KITCHEN  EQUIPMENT 

Agate  Ware:  Sink  brush 

Double  boiler  Vegetable  brush 

Colander  Earthenivare : 
Funnel  Butter  crock 

Ladle  Casserole 

Pie  plate,  deep  Custard  cups 

Pie  plates,  shallow  Mixing  bowls 

Quart  measure  2  large 

Sauce  pans  2  small 

1  quart  Tea  pot 

2  quart  Enamel,  White: 
4  quart  Bowls,    small 

.     6  quart  Dipper 

8  quart  Dish  pan,  oval 

Skimmer  Pitcher 

Spoon,  large   (basting)  Platter 

Aluminum:  Refrigerator  dishes 

Coffee  percolator — 6  cups  Soap  dish 

Coffee  pot  Glass: 

Kettle  covers  -Baking  dish 

1  for  1  quart  pan  Butter  dish  with  cover 

2  for  2  quart  pan  'Containers  for     dry  groceries 
1  for  4  quart  pan  Fruit  jars,  1  quart 

1  for  6  quart  pan  1  pint 

1  for  8  quart  pan  Lemon  squeezer 

Tea  kettle — 3  quarts  Measuring  cup 

Brushes:  Spice  jars 

Bottle  brush  Iron: 

Dust  brush  Dripping  pan 

Pastry  brush  Frying  pan  large 

Refrigerator  brush  Garbage  can    (galvanized) 

Scrubbing  brush  Griddle 

Silver  brush  Kettle  for  deep  fat  frying 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


91 


Roasting  pan,  Russia  iron 

Soup  pot 
Japanned  icare: 

Bread  box 

Cake  box 

Bust  pan 

Flour  bin 

Sugar  box 

Tray 
Linens  and  Cloths: 

Chamois  skin 

Cheesecloth 

Dish  towels 

Dusters 

Floor  cloths 

Glass  towels 

Hand  towels 

Holders,  soft 

Oven  cloths 
Silver   (nickel)  : 

2  forks 

3  tablespoons 

4  teaspoons 

1  half  teaspoon 
Steel: 

Bread  knife 
Can  opener 
Cork  screw 
Hammer 
Ice  pick 

Knife  sharpener 
Meat  skewers 
Metal  mesh  pot  cleaner 
Nut  cracker 
Paring  knife 
Scissors 
Spatula 
Tin: 

Angel  cake  tin 

Apple  corer 

Biscuit,      cookie     and      doughnut 

cutters 
Bread  pans 
Cake  pans,  deep 

shallow 
Flour  sifter 
Grater 
Measuring  cups,  standard  %  pt. 

2  muffin  tins,  6  cups  each 
Pastry  sheet 

Steamer,  fits  any  kettle 
Wire: 

Basket  for  deep  fat  frying 


Broiler 

Dish  drainer 

Potato  masher 

Puree  sieve 

Sink  strainer 

Soap  shaker 

Toaster 

Tea  or  coffee  strainer 

Wire  egg  beater 

Wooden  : 

Bread  board 
Chopping  bowl 
Dough  board 
Ice  cream  freezer 
Knife  board 
Rack  for  towels 
Rolling  pin 
Salt  box 
Spoon 
Step-chair 
Table,  3  feet  long 
Miscellaneous  : 
Asbestos  sheet 
Broom 
Calendar 
Carpet  sweeper 
Clock 

Coffee  mill 
Cork 
Labels 

Large  needles 
Match    box 
Pad  and  pencils 
Pail 
Paper 

Greasing 

Shelves  and  drawers 

Waxed 
Scales 

Scrap  basket 
Screw  hooks 
String 
Thread 
Thumb  tacks 
Labor  Savers: 

Aluminum  cleaning  pan 
Bread  mixers 
Cake  mixers 
Fireless  cooker 
Half-teaspoon  measure 
Meat  grinder 
Wheel   egg-beater. 


92  HOUSEWIFERY 

Kitchen  Tables. — Firmness,  height,  and  material  are  points  to 
be  considered  in  buying  a  table.  Choose  a  strong,  well-built  table 
with  substantial  legs,  as  an  unsteady  table  is  especially  troublesome. 
The  lesser  evil  is  short  legs,  because  that  may  be  overcome  by  putting 
blocks  underneath  to  raise  the  table  to  the  proper  height.  Settles, 
which  may  be  purchased  with  square  tops  make  not  only  excellent 
kitchen  tables,  but  good  laundry  tables.  A  table  is  necessary  in  each 
of  these  rooms,  The  material  for  the  table  top  should  be  smooth, 
of  such  close  texture  as  to  be  non-absorbing  and  to  resist  stains, 
of  such  material  as  to.  be  easily  cleaned,  and  to  resist  wear  and  tear. 

Wooden  top  tables  require  constant  scrubbing  unless  they  are 
stained  with  oil  stain  or  are  varnished,  and  even  then,  unless  most 
carefully  protected  by  working  boards,  trays  or  papers,  great  care  will 
be  needed  to  keep  them  in  good  condition.  Waterproof  varnish 
may  be  proof  against  water,  but  hardly  against  the  marring  of  wear 
and  tear.  Wooden  top  tables  may  be  covered  with  oilcloth,  so  that 
the  only  care  needed  is  to  wipe  with  a  damp  cloth.  To  tack  this  cover 
on,  gives  a  table  top  which  is  quite  serviceable  and  one  that  lasts 
long,  unless  hot  pans  are  set  on  it,  or  knives  are  allowed  to  cut 
its  surface.  Sheets  of  zinc  may  be  used  as  a  cover,  or  zinc-top  tables 
may  be  bought,  but  while  they  are  serviceable  so  far  as  wear  and 
tear  are  concerned,  they  are  not  easily  kept  in  good  condition. 
Both  acids  and  alkalies  affect  zinc,  so  it  is  not  suitable  material  to 
come  directly  in  contact  with  food. 

Glass-top  tables  are  easily  cleaned,  not  affected  by  chemicals, 
but  are  not  proof  against  heat — that  is,  any  hot  dish,  for  example, 
a  saucepan,  set  upon  them,  is  likely  to  cause  such  rapid  expansion 
as  to  produce  breakage. 

Enamel  tables,  before  being  accepted,  should  be  guaranteed  proof 
against  chipping  with  such  things  as  screwing  on  meat  grinders 
and  bread  mixers,  or  by  the  knocking  of  heavy  bowls  or  knife  handles, 
which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent.  Very  great  heat,  too,  will 
chip  an  inferior  quality  of  enamel.  Enamel  is  being  perfected  to 
such  a  point  that  the  housekeeper  in  buying  stoves  and  tables  should 
give  careful  consideration  to  the  subject  before  refusing  either. 
Enamelled  gas  stoves,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  giving  good  service, 
and  tables  are  being  perfected  which  will  meet  all  requirements. 

Kitchen  cabinets  are  combined  tables  and  closets  which  have 
been  constructed  as  the  outcome  of  the  study  of  efficiency  methods. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


93 


POTS  AND 


FIG.  64. — Kitchen     cabinet.         Courtesy     of 
Charles  E.  White,  Ladies  Home  Journal. 


They  represent  grouping  about  the  working  center  the  supplies  and 
tools  that  belong  to  the  work  of  that  center  (see  page  86).  The 
kitchen  cabinet  is  really  a  kitchen  table  with  a  closet  of  shelves  or 
boxes  above,  with  containers  for  flours  and  meals  either  below  or  at 
the  side,  and  with  storage  capacity  for  mixing  bowls,  knives,  measur- 
ing utensils.  Such  cabinets  may  be  purchased  to-day  in  wood  or  in 
metal  which  has  been  enamel  painted  or  enamelled  (Figs.  64  and 
65 ).  The  wooden  cabinets  were 
first  in  the  market,  and  repre- 
sent the  same  points  in  capac- 
ity  and  convenience  that  the 

I     i  i    .LI  J-: 

metal  ones  do,  but  the  question 
of  cleanliness  rather  turns  the 
attention  to  the  metal  ones. 
The  metal  cabinets  are  more 
noisy  than  the  wooden  ones,  but 
are  more  likely  to  be  proof 
against  vermin,  rats,  and  mice, 
and  may  be  easily  cleaned  by 
water  without  becoming  water-soaked.  Metal  cabinets  are  also  non- 
absorbent  to  odors  and  to  any  spilled  food. 

The  housewife  can  make  a  home-made  cabinet  by  using  a  kitchen 
table  and  grouping  about  it  shelves,  which  may  or  may  not  have 
doors,  while  from  the  shelves  and  the  side  of  the  table  saucepans, 
sifters,  etc.,  may  be  hung.  A  man  or  woman  handy  with  tools  can 
make  an  excellent  cabinet,  one  that  may  be  divided  to  suit  the 
special  needs  even  better  than  a  ready-made  one.  An  old  book- 
case and  a  kitchen  table  make  a  good  beginning. 

Kitchen  Utensils. — Kitchen  utensils  must  be  selected  in  part 
on  the  basis  of  the  temperatures  to  which  they  will  be  subjected  in 
the  cooking  processes  (Figs.  66—68).  Frying  and  roasting  represent 
methods  in  which  dry  heat  of  high  temperature  is  essential.  Such 
material  as  Eussia  iron,  sheet  steel,  cast-iron,  crockery,  Pyrex  glass, 
are  especially  suited  for  this  type  of  cooking.  Bread  pans  and 
roasting  pans  are  best  of  Eussia  iron  or  sheet  steel,  while  cast-iron, 
because  of  its  thickness,  is  an  even  cooker  and  retains  a  high  tem- 
perature for  some  time,  and  hence  is  used  for  griddle  and  waffle 
irons,  frying  kettles,  and  skillets. 

For  boiling,  stewing,  or  where  moisture  is  part  of  the  cooking 


94 


HOUSEWIFERY 


process,  and  where  the  temperature  therefore   is  not   over   212° 
Fahrenheit,  agate,  enamel,  or  tin  may  be  purchased. 

Aluminum  is  a  metal  that  may  be  used  for  either  method,  as  it 

may  be  heated  to  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  heat 

I         HUH)      ttMH   '  with  or  without  moist- 

ure. It  is  capable  of 
being  made  into  any 
shaped  pan,  but  is 
more  expensive  than 
some  metals.  Alumi- 
num is  slightly  affected 
by  both  acids  and  alka- 
lies ;  vegetables,  for  ex- 
ample, will  discolor  it, 
whereas  fruits  and  acid 
foods  brighten  and 
clean  it.  It  should 
never  be  put  to  soak 
with  soda  water,  and 
is  most  easily  cleaned 
with  dilute  acids,  such 
as  rhubarb,  lemon,  or 
tomato.  In  fact,  after 
cooking  any  of  these 
foods  in  an  aluminum 
pan,  the  pan  is  as 
bright  as  when  new. 

Crockery  and  glass 
are  chosen  for  slow 
baking,  as  for  casse- 
roles and  custards,  and 
for  baking  acid  foods 
like1  apples,  tomatoes, 
or  other  fruits.  There 
is  a  new  glass  cooking 
ware  which  is  used  for 
baking  utensils  of  all  kinds,  and  which  has  been  shown  to  cook 
in  less  time  than  that  required  for  metal  baking  dishes,  and 
therefore  with  a  smaller  consumption  of  fuel. 


Fia.  65. — White  enamel  kitchen  cabinet. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  95 

VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  COOKING  TOOLS 


FIG.  66. — Utensils  for  dough  work.    Courtesy  of  Miss  Mildred  Maddocks,  Good  Housekeeping. 


FIG.  67. — Different  shapes  and  kinds  of  saucepans.     Courtesy  of  Miss  Mildred  Maddocks, 

Good  Housekeeping. 


FIG.  68.— Baking  dishes.    Courtesy  of  Miss  Mildred  Maddocks,  Good  Housekeeping. 


96  HOUSEWIFERY 

Enamel  or  agate  is  a  glass  like  coating  on  sheet  steel.  With 
high  temperatures  like  frying,  the  sheet  steel  heats  and  expands 
more  than  with  boiling,  and  the  expansion  is  so  great  that  the 
enamel  covering,  which  has  almost  no  expansive  power,  is  likely  to 
chip  off.  One  usually  considers  agate  ware  that  which  is  gray 
or  mottled,  and  the  enamel  as  plain  color,  either  blue,  white,  or 
brown.  There  is  little  difference  in  the  wearing  power,  but  there 
is  a  difference  in  the  cost,  in  favor  of  the  agate.  Sudden  change  of 
temperature,  as  is  given  in  professional  testing,  is  a  very  severe  test 
for  enamel  ware,  and  usually  proves  its  worth.  Enamel  utensils  will 


FIG.  69. — Small  kitchen  necessities.    Courtesy  of  Miss  Mildred  Maddocks, 
Good  Housekeeping. 

usually  wear  better  if,  before  they  are  put  info  service,  they  are 
placed  in  a  larger  pan  of  cold  water  and  boiled  in  that  water ;  after 
boiling,  let  the  pan  cool  in  the  water,  as  this  seems  to  toughen 
the  enamel. 

Steel  should  be  used  for  all  cutlery,  and  the  higher  tempered 
steel  should  be  chosen  when  sharp  edges  are  required.  It  does 
not  pay  to  buy  a  cheap  grade  of  steel,  as  it  neither  takes  a  sharp 
edge  nor  holds  one.  The  housekeeper  should  plan  to  have  a 
carving  knife  of  high-tempered  steel,  a  good  bread  knife,  and  one 
small  vegetable  knife  with  a  thin  blade  of  high-grade  steel  so  that  it 
cuts  thin  parings.  These  better  knives  should  be  saved  from  the 
rougher  work  of  the  kitchen  such  as  the  work  of  turning  food  on  a 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


97 


griddle  or  in  a  frying  pan,  and  as  most  of  them  are  sharp-pointed 
they  are  not  suitable  for  bowl  scraping  or  for  measuring.  A  spatula 
is  best  for  dough  work,  for  turning  food,  and  for  scraping ;  a  round- 
ended  case  knife  is  best  for  measuring.  Buy  a  cork-screw  and  a  can 
opener,  so  that  there  is  no  need  of  taking  a  good  knife  to  open 
bottles  or  tin  cans.  Get  the 
butcher  to  crack  or  saw 
bones,  so  the  knife  need  not 
be  used  for  that  work. 

Tinware  is  made  of  a 
thin  coating  of  tin  on  a  sheet 
steel  foundation.  Tin  melts 
at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature, and  is  affected  by 
acids.  For  this  reason,  a  tin 
utensil  should  never  be  put 
over  a  fire  without  some- 
thing in  it  for  moisture,  and 
it  is  not  suitable  for  baking 
or  stewing  acid  foods.  The 
melting  of  tin  is  often  seen 
in  the  globules  of  tin  found 

On  the  OUtside  Of  SaUCe-panS,  FljB.  70.-Folding  wheel  table.     Espeoi- 

and    the    dark    rin^    on    thp          a^y  suitable  in  small  kitchen  and  where  stor- 
.  .     _  5  age  space  must  be  considered. 

bottom  of  baked  apples  show 

the  effect  of  the  acid  of  the  apple  on  the  tin  of  the  dish. 

Wireware  is  bought  for  dish  drainers,  strainers,  bread  and  cake 
racks,  frying  baskets,  and  egg  whips. 

Woodenware  is  most  suitable  for  spoons  that  are  to  be  used  for 
stirring  and  mixing,  and  for  dough  boards,  bread,  and  meat  boards. 

General  Standard. — In  selecting  all  utensils,  the  following 
standards  should  be  kept  in  mind :  Avoid  utensils  with  sharp  edges, 
or  with  cracks  or  lines  from  which  food  may  be  cleaned  only  with 
difficulty.  (To  clean  kitchen  utensils,  see  chapter  on  Cleaning, 
pages  261,  262. 

Below  are  discussed  some  items  of  special  importance  in  kitchen 
equipment  in  the  nature  of  labor  savers. 

Aluminum  Cleaning  Pan  or  Disc  for  Silver. — Cost,  $l-$3. 
The  method  of  using  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Cleaning  and 


98  HOUSEWIFERY 

Care,  page  263.  It  saves  time  and  the  worker,  and  does  not  harm 
the  silver — leaves  it  with  a  whiter  finish  and  less  of  the  satin  gloss. 
(See  also  chapter  on  Supplies,  page  134.) 

•  Bread  and  Cake  Mixers. — Cost  of  bread  mixers,  $3.00-$4.50 ; 
of  cake  mixers,  $2.00.  These  labor  savers  are  time  savers,  because 
they  can  do  a  given  amount  of  work  in  much  less  time,  and  like  all 
machines  the  mechanism,  if  true,  produces  standard  results.  The 
bread  mixer  is  an  even  greater  necessity  than  the  cake  mixer. 
Making  bread  by  the  use  of  this  machine  is  reduced  to  careful  meas- 
uring and  baking,  with  no  energy  expended  in  long  kneading. 

Cork  for  Cleaning  Knives. — Any  large  flat  cork  like  that  from 
a  big  jug  is  a  great  labor  saver  for  cleaning, knives.  It  not  only 
saves  labor,  but  the  wear  and  staining  of  a  good  dishcloth. 

Dish  Mops. — A  string  mop  may  'be  used  for  washing  dishes,  if 
one  does  not  want  to  put  the  hands  in  water,  but  such  mops  must  be 
kept  very  clean. 

Fireless  Cookers. — Cost,  $4-$40.  See  chapter  on  Heating  and 
Lighting,  page  76.) 

Half-teaspoon  Measure. — Cost,  60  cents.  Very  handy  and 
accurate  in  making  small  measurements. 

Meat  Grinders.— Cost,  $1.25-$3.00.  These  helps  represent  an 
investment  towards  economy  and  efficiency.  The  grinders,  through 
the  possibility  offered  by  the  different  knives,  have  an  almost 
unlimited  use,  not  only  with  meat,  but  bread,  vegetables  and  other 
food  materials.  In  this  way  when  various  meals  and  grains  are  to 
be  converted  into  flours,  the  grinder  may  be  used  as  a  mill. 

Metal-Mesh  Pot  Cleaner. — Cost,  10  cents.  This  device  cleans 
pots  and  iron  pans  much  more  efficiently  than  a  knife,  which  is 
soon  dulled  by  such  use;  and  it  eliminates  the  use  of  an  abrasive 
cleaner  on  the  dish  cloth,  with  its  consequent  wear  on  the  cloth  and 
with  grit  in  the  dish  water. 

Paper  Dish  Cloths. — Cost,  3  cents-5  cents.  These  are  efficient, 
sanitary,  and  may  be  used  several  times  before  throwing  away. 

Palette  Knives,  called  Spatulas. — Cost,  from  25  cents  up.  Two 
strokes  with  the  thin,  flexible  blade  cleans  a  mixing  bowl,  instead 
of  a  dozen  strokes  with  a  case  knife — less  waste  of  material  and 
greater  efficiency.  Also  invaluable  for  turning  food  in  frying  pan 
or  on  griddle. 

Sink  Strainer. — Cost,  10  cents^iO  cents.  Such  a  labor  saver 
kept  in  the  sink  reduces  the  sink  cleaning  to  such  a  minimum  that 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


99 


no  shovel  and  scraper  are  necessary  to  clean  food  scraps  out  of  the 
sink,  no  force  pumps  needed  to  clean  out  the  waste  pipe,  and  the 
sink  may  be  washed  as  easily  as  a  china  plate.  This  strainer  may 
be  a  three-sided  one  of  wire  to  keep  in  the  corner  of  the  sink,  or  it 
may  be  just  a  puree  strainer  with  tin  sides.  The  strainer  is  best 
of  wire  woven  mediumly  close ;  a  puree  strainer  is  too  close. 

Wheel  Egg-beater. — Cost,  5  cents-15  cents.  It  is  easily  oper- 
ated, and  very  efficient  in  making  eggs  light.  It  can  be  used  as  a 
cream  whip. 


FIG.  71. — Wheel  table.    A  wheel  table  is  a  real  labor  saver,  provided  it  can  be  easily  moved 
and  cleaned.     The  extra  shelves  and  top  space  make  this  one  efficient. 

Window  Food-storage  Box. — Cost,  $10-$15.  Any  box  put  on 
the  window  sill  or  outside  the  window  may  be  a  "  window  box."  To 
increase  its  efficiency  and  to  add  to  its  sanitation,  it  should  be  put 
on  two  cleats  to  raise  it  above  any  moisture  on  the  window  sill;  it- 
should  have  a  slanting  rain-proof  roof  which  projects  to  insure 
the  dryness  of  contents;  it  should  be  well  ventilated  to  keep  it 
sweet  smelling;  it  should  be  large  and  shelved  to  facilitate  organ- 
ization ;  and  to  make  it  easily  cleaned,  it  should  be  painted  with 


100  HOUSEWIFERY 

white  enamel  paint.  It  should  be  located  at  a  window  near  the 
food-work  center.  In  building  a  new  house  a  ventilated  food 
storage  closet  can  be  built  on  the  outside  of  the  house,  on  the  kitchen 
wall,  and  made  to  open  directly  into  the  kitchen  by  a  special  door 
through  the  wall. 

Wire  Dish  Drainer.— Cost,  10  cents-$1.50.  This  is  a  most 
helpful  labor  saver  in  draining  hot,  well-rinsed  dishes.  By  using 
very  hot  water  for  rinsing,  it  eliminates  the  necessity  of  wiping 
dishes,  thus  saving  labor  and  towels,  and  insuring  clean  dishes. 

Wooden  'Spoons. — Cost,  5  cents-20  cents.  There  is  no  rasping 
noise,  no  black  metal  marks  on  bowl  or  worker's  hand,  better  grip 
possible,  hence  less  hand  and  arm  ache,  no  burns  from  hot  metal 
handles.  After  use,  soaking  them  in  cold  water  makes  them  easily 
cleaned. 

Dish-washing  Machine. — Cost,  $75-$110.  This  should  be  a 
labor  saver,  and  will  be  with  a  family  of  about  six  or  eight,  or  more. 
If  one  stops  to  think  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  dishwashing 
work  is  finished  when  the  dishes  are  scraped,  sorted,  and  stacked, 
and  that  this  must  be  done  whether  the  machine  is  used  or  not,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  machine  will  prove  an  economy  only  in  the 
large  family.  A  labor-saving  dishwashing  method  is  perhaps  the 
most  economical  in  small  families;  try,  as  the  dishes  are  brought 
from  the  dining-room,  to  rinse  and  stack,  and  have  a  pitcher  or  pan 
of  water  to  receive  the  silver;  this  method  is  efficient,  reducing 
considerably  the  time  required  for  washing  when  there  has  been  a 
disorderly  piling  of  dishes. 

In  dish-washing  machines,  the  dishes  are  arranged  on  a  rack 
inside  the  tank  of  the  machine,  and  the  water,  in  which  soap  or 
soda  has  been  dissolved,  is  forcibly  sprayed  over  them.  This  requires 
that  the  dishes  should  be  well  scraped,  and  then  so  stacked  that  the 
soiled  part  is  free  to  be  washed.  The  racks  hold  the  dishes  apart 
from  each  other,  and  usually  there  is  a  holder  especially  designed 
for  silver.  Soda  or  soap  powders  must  be  dissolved  and  put  into 
the  water.  As  the  hot  water  comes  into  the  washer  the  suds  is 
formed ;  then  either  by  a  hand  or  a  power  device,  force  is  cr.eated 
which  throws  the  water  over  the  dishes  and  removes  the  soil.  The 
soda  solution  is  most  often  used  because  it  saponifies  the  grease, 
and  as  the  hot  rinse  leaves  the  dishes  to  drain  dry — there  is  no 
wiping — a  film  is  not  left  as  is  the  case  when  glass  or  china  has  been 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES         101 

washed  with  soap  and  not  properly  rinsed.  However,  care  must 
be  used  in  washing  gold-decorated  dishes  with  soda  as  this  will  in 
time  remove  the  gold.  The  machine  does  better  work  with  plates  and 
saucers  than  with  silver  and  cups.  Silver  is  not  likely  to  be  very 
clean,  especially  in  small  crevices  as  between  fork  tines,  and  cups 
too  often  lose  their  handles.  The  efficiency  of  a  dish-washer  may 
be  rated  by  the  number  of  pieces  washed  at  one  time,  the  possibility 
of  doing  cups  and  silver,  the  amount  of  breakage,  the  ease  of 
cleaning  the  machine,  ard  the  kind  of  power — hand  or  mechani- 
cal. To  make  a  dish-washer  really  useful,  hot  and  cold  water  should 
be  piped  to  it,  and  a  waste  pipe  provided;  an  adequate  supply  of 
very  hot  water  is  also  essential. 

A  wire  frying  basket  may  be  used  as  an  inexpensive  substitute 
for  a  dish-washing  machine.  Fill  the  basket  with  dishes,  then 
plunge  it  into  a  pan  or  tub  of  hot  soapy  water,  and  keep  it  moving 
until  the  dishes  are  clean. 

Dumb-waiter. — Of  course  the  ideal  "dumb-waiter,"  or  small 
lift  for  parcels  between  floors,  is  one  with  an  electric  motor,  the 
whole  being  an  electric  lift.  Its  cost — about  $1200 — is  too  high  to  be 
considered  except  in  the  largest  households,  so  the  pulley  dumb- 
waiter is  commonly  used.  It  can  be  as  simple  as  to  be  only  a  pulley 
fastened  in  a  strong  beam,  and  a  large  basket  or  box  suspended 
from  it  by  ropes,  all  operating  through  a  shaft;  and  in  its  simple 
standard  form,  in  which  there  is  a  counter-weight  to  the  box,  it  is 
not  relatively  expensive.  For  the  housekeeper  who  must  use  her 
cellar  or  basement  several  times  a  day,  it  will  greatly  reduce  the 
work  of  carrying  up  and  down.  Be  sure  to  locate  the  dumb-waiter 
where  it  has  the  closest  relationship  to  the  kitchen,  and  can  give  the 
greatest  service  to  the  part  of  the  house  it  is  to  serve.  It  is  possible 
to  have  the  dumb-waiter  go  down  into  the  cellar ;  and  instead  of  the 
housekeeper  emptying  it  each  time,  it  may  stay  in  a  walled-in  or 
sunken  place  in  the  cellar  floor,  where  it  will  be  especially  cool.  This 
makes  a  cool  storage  receiving  room  which  will  save  ice  for  many 
months  in  the  year.  The  principle  is  the  same  as  that  of  lowering 
food  into  a  well  to  keep  cool. 

Wheel  Table.— Cost,  $1.75-$15.00.  The  $1.75  table  may  be 
a  home-made  one  from  a  cheap  kitchen  table  plus  the  cost  of  four 
rollers.  One  desirable  type  has  a  top  and  bottom  table  surface,  a 
drawer  and  a  towel  hanger ;  it  is  light,  steady,  and  of  such  size  as  to 


102  HOUSEWIFERY 

go  easily  through  the  door  (Figs.  71  and  72).  It  saves  the  cost  of 
many  journeys  from  a  room.  A  tray  is  its  poor  substitute,  but  even 
though  poor,  is  better  than  carrying  each  thing  singly. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Given  $25.00  to  spend,  what  labor-saving  devices  would  you  buy? 

2.  What  points  must  a  housewife  know  in  purchasing  an  electrical  device, 

whether  a  sweeper,  a  washer,  or  an  ironer? 

3.  In  what  ways  can  you  economize  in  operating  an  electrical  machine? 

4.  What  economies  are  represented  in  a  wheel  table? 

5.  Make  a   comparison   between   the  different  materials   used    for   cooking 

utensils.     Do  this  by  listing  advantages  versus  disadvantages. 

REFERENCES 

CHILD,  GEORGIA  B.,  EFFICIENT  KITCHEN.    McBride,  Nast  &  Co. 

FARMERS'  BULLETIN  927,  FARM  HOME  CONVENIENCES.  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

FREDERICK  CHRISTINE,  THE  NEW  HOUSEKEEPING.     Doubleday,  Pa»e  &  Co. 

GOOD  HOUSEKEEPING  INSTITUTE,  HOUSEHOLD  ENGINEERING.  Good  House- 
keeping Institute. 

PARLOA,  MARIA,  HOME  ECONOMICS.    Century  Co. 

U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS,  MEASUREMENTS  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  Circu- 
lar No.  55. 

VULTE,  HERMAN,  HOUSEHOLD  CHEMISTRY.     Chemical  Publishing  Co. 


CHAPTER  V 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES— II 

LAUNDRY   EQUIPMENT 

THE  laundry  process  requires  facilities  for  a  water  supply  and 
disposal  of  waste  water,  which  are  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
Plumbing,  page  21.  Laundry  processes  are  given  in  the  chapter  on 
Laundering  and  Renovation,  page  273.  Herewith  are  listed  the 
desirable  items  of  laundry  equipment  and  supplies,  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  more  important  items  of  laundry  equipment  (Fig.  72). 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


Asbestos  mats 
Boiler,  copper  bottom 
Bottles,  y%.  doz.  2  oz. 
Bowls 

enamel  2  qts. 

enamel  6  qts. 

large  for  starching 
Brushes 

fringe 

scrubbing 

spotting? 
Case  knife 
Cheesecloth 
Clothes-basket 
Clothes-hamper 
Clothes-horse 
Clothes-line 
Clothes-pins 
Clothespin  bag 
Clothes-props 
Clothes-stick 
Cloth,    heavy,    for    washing    tubs 

and  boiler 
Duster  for    line 
Droppers 
Funnel 
Flannel 
Irons 

1  heavy 

3  sad 

1  gas  or  electric  or  gasoline 

1  fluting  iron 

1  pointed   small 

1  polishing 


Iron  holders 
Iron  stand 
Ironing  boards 

bosom 

skirt 

sleeves 

Ironing  table 
Jars 

1     doz.  Mason,  1  qt. 

y2  doz.  Mason,  2  qt. 
Labels 
Measures — 

1  teaspoon 

1  tablespoon 

1  cup 

1  quart 

1  graduate 

Yard  stick 

Tape 

Mop  for  floor 
Muslin,  unbleached 
Paper 

blotting 

unglazed 

Pail,  galvanized  iron 
Pins,  ya  pound 
Scales 
Scissors 
Soap  dish 
Sprinkler 
Strainer 
Tape,  cotton 
Vacuum  washer 
Wash  bench 


103 


104 


HOUSEWIFERY 


M     !\ 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  105 

Washboard,  glass  or  zinc  Whisk  broom 

Washtubs,  2-3  Wringer 

Washing  machine  Wooden  spoon 
Wax 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LAUNDRY  SUPPLIES 

For   detailed   discussion    see   chapter    on    Supplies,   pages   136-142. 

Alum  Hyposulphite  of  soda 

Alcohol  Javelle 

Ammonia  Kerosene 

Benzine  Oxalic  acid 

Blanket  wash  Paraffin 

Blue  Potassium  permanganate 

Borax  Soap 

Bran  Soap  bark 

Chloride  of  lime  Soap  solution 

Chloroform  Soap  chips 

Detergent  Soda    (powdered  form,  or  crystals 

Ether  in  solution) 

French   chalk  Starch 

Fuller's  earth  corn 

Gasoline  rice 

Hydrochloric  acid  wheat 

Hydrogen  peroxide  Turpentine 

For  Washing  Process. — Washtubs. — Any  material  that  is 
smooth,  non-absorbing,  and  easily  cleaned  is  good  for  washtubs,  so 
that  the  type  of  tub  is  somewhat  of  a  personal  matter  as  to  price. 
(See  chapter  on  Plumbing,  page  44.) 

Wash  benches  should  have  long  enough  legs  so  as  to  lift  the 
portable  tub  to  the  comfortable  height  which  will  save  fatigue. 
Folding  benches  are  great  helps  where  space  is  limited. 

Stationary  tubs  may  be  mounted  on  gas-pipe  legs,  cut  to  the 
proper  length,  rather  than  on  the  molded  legs  which  are  sold  with  the 
tubs.  These  molded  legs  are  always  too  short,  but  may  be  made 
longer  by  means  of  a  metal  extension  bracelet.  (See  chapter  on 
Plumbing,  page  47.)  For  ease  and  rapidity  of  work  three  tubs  will 
be  most  efficient.  With  a  washing  machine  one  tub  will  do,  though 
two  are  more  convenient.  Have  the  tubs  so  connected  by  the 
wringer  board  that  it  is  possible  to  use  the  wringer  on  all  tubs, 
and  in  either  direction. 

Wash-boards  come  in  either  glass,  zinc,  or  galvanized  iron.  The 
metal  ones  will  not  crack  with  a  knock  or  a  fall  as  easily  as  will  the 
glass.  The  glass  ones,  however,  are  just  as  efficient,  are  usually  less 
sharp  in  their  corrugations,  and  are  more  easily  kept  clean.  The  fact 


106 


HOUSEWIFERY 


of  the  corrugation  being  less  pronounced  is  an  advantage  when 
the  wear  on  the  clothes  is  considered.  Most  washboards  have  very 
long  feet,  so  that  the  board  projects  up  beyond  the  tub;  the  feet 
may  be  shortened  with  a  saw,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  work  with  a 
lower  board,  and  a  lower  board  makes  it  possible  to  work  with  less 


FIG.  73. — Types  of  washing  machines.  A,  the  Dolly  type,  a,  dolly;  B,  a  vacuum  boiler 
washer;  C,  pressure  and  suction  type,  a,  funnel;  D,  washer  with  corrugated  lining;  E,  a 
revolving  cylinder  type;  a,  inner  cylinder  perforated;  6,  outer  cylinder — wooden  or  copper. 
Courtesy  Country  Gentleman. 

chance   of   spilling   water.     High   washtubs    will    require    shorter 
washboards. 

Wringers  are  of  greater  service  when  reversible.  The  stronger 
ones  have  two  side  springs  and  ball-bearing  action.  The  side  springs 
add  much  to  the  strength  and  endurance  of  a  wringer,  and  the  ball- 
bearing action  is  smoother  and  easier.  The  wringers  have  usually 
three-  and  five-year  guarantees,  but  even  the  cheaper  wringer  will  go 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  107 

far  beyond  that  time  if  kept  oiled  and  clean,  and  if  the  pressure  is 
taken  off  when  not  in  action.  A  three-year  or  five-year  wringer  is 
not  expensive,  and  is  a  better  purchase  than  the  cheaper  ones. 

Washing  Machines. — Cost,  $12-$150.  There  are  some  two  hun- 
dred washing  machines  on  the  market;  but  for  study  they  may  all 
be  divided  into  five  groups  (Fig.  73).  Of  these  five  groups,  two  are 
usually  found  with  wooden  tubs,  the  other  three  are  likely  to  have 


FIG.  74. — Pressure  and  suction  washer.  FIG.  75. — Rotary  washer.     The  clothes  are 

put  in  this  inner  cage  which  revolves  in  the 
soap  and  water.  The  action  of  the  cage  re- 
verses, and  the  load  should  not  be  so  full  that 
the  ctothes  do  not  drop  on  each  revolution. 
The  "drop"  causes  a  displacement  of  the  dirt. 

metal  tubs.  A  wooden  tub  machine  is  cheaper  in  first  cost;  it 
gives  its  best  service  when  stored  and  used  in  cellars,  sheds,  barns, 
unheated  rooms,  or  on  porches.  The  continual  heat  of  the  house 
causes  the  wooden  machine  to  dry  and  shrink,  and  soon  leakage 
results.  A  wet  sponge  kept  in  the  machine  when  not  in  use  may 
furnish  enough  moisture  to  prevent  this  drying. 

One  type  of  the  cheaper  machines  is  called  a  "Dolly."  This 
"  dolly  "  is  like  a  four-legged  milking  stool  which  by  reverse  rota- 
tions draws  the  clothes  through  the  soapsuds.  The  clothes  are 
cleaned  by  the  displacement  of  dirt  brought  about  by  means  of  fric- 
tion and  agitation  as  they  are  drawn  through  the  soapsuds. 


108 


HOUSEWIFERY 


The  second  type  of  machine  has  the  wash-board  principle.  Two 
corrugated  boards,  shaped  like  discs  or  half  cylinders,  rub  the 
clothes  top  and  bottom,  and  the  mechanical  principle  is  friction,  and 
this,  with  the  solvent  power  of  the  water,  cleans  the  clothes. 

The  remaining  three  types  of  machines  are  the  pressure  and 
suction,  rotary  and  oscillating  types.  The  action  of  the  pressure 


FIG.  76. — Oscillating  washing  machine. 

and  suction  machines  (Fig.  74)  depends  upon  cones  which  rise  and 
fall  in  the  tub,  pressing  the  clothes  on  the  down  stroke,  and  creating 
suction  when  the  cones  lift  on  the  up  stroke.  The  clothes  are 
cleaned  entirely  by  forcing  soap  and  water  through  them.  There 
is  no  friction. 

Rotary  machines    (Fig.   75)    are  like  cages  which  revolve  the 
clothes  in  soap  and  water,  on  the  same  principle  that  the  coffee 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  109 

roaster  turns  the  coffee  beans  in  heated  air.  This  cage  has  open- 
ings of  either  slits  or  holes  so  that  soap  and  water  enter  freely  in 
and  around  the  clothes.  The  clothes  are  washed  by  agitation  and 
by  the  throwing  of  the  clothes,,  which  action  comes  at  each  revolu- 
tion of  the  cage. 

The  oscillating  machine  (Fig.  76)  swings  like  a  baby's  cradle. 
This  swinging  throws  the  clothes  back  and  forth  and  forces  soap 
and  water  through  them.  There  are  several  types  of  oscillating 
machines,  but  the  principle  of  all  is  the  same. 

The  washing  machines  range  in  cost  from  $12  to  $150,  the  wide 
range  being  due  to  the  fact  that  machines  may  be  bought  to  be 
operated  by  hand,  and  by  motor ;  and  the  wooden  and  the  metal  tubs 
vary  greatly  in  price.  Most  motor-driven  machines  have  power 
wringers,  which  are  included  in  the  cost.  The  housekeeper  should 
take  this  into  account  when  she  is  awed  at  first  by  the  price  of  the 
machine,  because  she  has  not  only  a  mechanical  washer  but  a 
mechanical  wringer  as  well,  both  of  which  are  great  labor  and 
time  savers.  Hand-driven  machines  are  not  so  much  labor  savers, 
because  the  hand  work  is  hard,  owing  to  the  weight  of  the  material 
when  wet  in  the  machine.  A  hand-driven  machine  keeps  the  operator 
busy  during  the  process,  while  with  a  motor  the  woman  is  free  to  do 
other  things.  This  must  all  be  considered  when  cost  is  studied. 

In  localities  where  one  does  not  have  electrical  power,  the  house- 
keeper should  look  into  the  question  of  water  motors  and  gasoline 
engines.  A  water  motor  is  possible  in  many  localities  where  the 
water  tax  is  low,  and  where  there  is  a  good  force  of  water  in  the  pipes. 
On  farms  where  there  are  gasoline  engines,  it  is  very  easy  to  attach 
the  belt  from  the  engine  to  the  wheel  of  the  power  washer,  and  in 
this  ease  the  engine  will  do  the  washing  and  the  wringing.  A  small 
engine  may  be  purchased  for  the  washer  for  $40. 

With  all  this  labor  saving  by  the  machine  itself,  best  results 
are  lacking  if,  in  arranging  for  the  machine,  one  has  not  planned  to 
have  hot  and  cold  water  piped  directly  either  by  hose  or  by  special 
plumbing  to  the  machine,  and  the  waste  water  piped  directly  away 
from  the  washer  by  a  drain.  Do  not  make  this  a  closed  drain,  for 
should  a  small  piece  of  lace  or  a  button,  for  example,  get  into  the 
drain  it  probably  will  be  lost  or  clog  the  pipe.  To  set  the  washer 
into  a  sunken  part  of  a  cement  floor  which  has  its  own  outlet,  is  a 
very  efficient  way;  if  not  of  cement,  this  sunken  portion  may  be 


110  HOUSEWIFERY 

lined  with  a  heavy  metal  pan,  having  an  outlet  for  waste  water 
connecting  with  a  sewer  or  other  house  drain. 

All  washing  machines  are  measured  by  "  sheet  capacity  " — i.e., 
the  number  of  sheets  that  can  be  washed  in  one  load,  or  an  equiva- 
lent bulk.  Most  machines  wash  well  six  double  sheets ;  four  towels 
equal  in  bulk  one  sheet;  three  pillow  cases  equal  one  sheet.  Those 
who  expect  to  operate  a  washing  machine  should  consider  buying 
soap  chips  in  barrel  or  half -barrel  quantities,  and  also  washing  soda 
in  powdered  form.  (See  chapter  on  Supplies,  page  138.) 

Various  washing  devices  are  possible  for  the  housewife  who  feels 
it  unwise  to  spend  a  larger  amount  of  money  for  a  machine.  A 
most  complete  aid  may  be  made  in  the  home  by  fastening  a  tin 
funnel  to  a  shortened  broom  handle,  cut  down  at  one  end  to  fit 
into  the  neck  of  the  funnel.  The  funnel  costs  about  5  cents  to  10 
cents,  and  really  makes  a  good  vacuum  hand-washer.  Vacuum  wash- 
ing devices  may  be  purchased  from  75  cents  to  $1.50.  They  have 
specially  designed  funnels,  which  often  have  smaller  funnels  inside. 
All  this  increases  the  suction.  To  increase  their  efficiency,  there  is 
a  perforated  soap  cup,  which  produces  suds  as  the  washer  works  the 
funnel  up  and  down  in  the  water. 

There  are  two  percolating  washing  devices  on  the  principle  of 
the  percolating  coffee  pot,  which  are  to  be  put  into  the  wash-boiler — 
$1.50  to  $3.00.  As  the  water  heats  and  expands,  it  is  forced  out  at 
the  spray  top  of  the  funnel.  A  constant  circulation  is  produced 
which  forces  soap  and  water  through  the  clothes.  The  water  is 
to  percolate  over  the  clothes,  just  as  the  liquid  coffee  does  over  the 
ground  coffee,  and  after  five  minutes  the  clothes  are  cleaned.  These 
percolating  devices  are  suitable  only  for  white  cottons  and  linens, 
as  boiling  must  be  done  to  have  the  device  work.  The  vacuum 
funnel  device  may  be  used  on  all  types  of  materials,  but  requires 
constant  work  on  the  part  of  the  woman.  It  is  a  most  valuable 
aid  for  washing  wools  and  silks,  so  valuable  that  it  would  pay  to 
own  one  for  that  use  alone. 

For  all  these  hand  devices  as  for  the  power  machines,  the  house- 
wife should  plan  to  buy  and  use  soap  chips  instead  of  cake  ,soap. 

For  Drying  Process,  Baskets  and  Hampers. — The  container 
for  soiled  clothes  should  be  free  from  ornamentation,  which  collects 
dirt  and  dust,  so  that  a  washable  muslin  bag,  a  papier-mache  basket- 
shaped  container,  or  a  metal  can  (Fig.  77)  are  far  better  than  the 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES          111 


much  used  willow  hamper.  The  baskets  to  be  used  in  the  laundry 
process  should  be  light  in  weight,  and  preferably  have  an  adjustable 
muslin  lining.  These  linings  are  easily  cleaned,  which  is  important, 
as  the  basket  is  so  likely  to  be  soiled. 

Clothespin  bags  are  most  useful  when  shaped  and  worn  like 
an  apron  with  a  wide  pocket.  It  is  best  to  have  them  not  too  deep, 
the  whole  apron  being  shallow  and  wide.  Ticking  is  the  most  ser- 
viceable material  and  can  be 
washed  easily.  For  another  very 
convenient  bag,  take  a  hook  like 
a  clothes-line  hook,  such  as  is 
screwed  to  the  side  of  the  house 
or  the  fence  to  hold  the  clothes- 
line, cut  a  square  of  heavy  wash- 
able material,  and  sew  the  cor- 
ners of  the  square  to  the  screw. 
Such  a  bag  will  hook  on  the 
clothes-line  and  slide  ahead  of 
the  worker,  holding  the  pins 
always  at  hand. 

fryers.  —  The  clothes-line, 
eitherlieT»p-jr0pe  or  copper  wire, 
gives  good  service  at  little  cost. 
The  copper  wire  is  more  efficient 
as  it  is  put  up  permanently,  need- 
ing only  to  be  wiped  oflL  just 
before  use.  The  hemp  line  will 
stretch,  and  also  will  shrink  when 
wet,  and  the  soil  enters  its  fibres  so  deeply  when  left  out  perma- 
nently that  it  is  hard  to  clean,  so  that  it  is  wiser  to  take  it  down 
after  each  use. 

Patented  hangers  have  been  so  perfected  as  to  give  excellent 
service,  especially  in  small  yards  and  on  back  porches  where  the 
clothes  may  dry  in  the  air  even  if  in  a  limited  space.  Some  of  the 
dryers  are  of  special  service  for  kitchen  drying,  because  they  pull 
up  to  the  ceiling,  when  not  in  use  or  when  full  of  clothes.  Re- 
volving umbrella  hangers  (Fig.  78),  having  good  capacity,  take  up 
small  yard  or  porch  space,  at  the  same  time  making  it  possible  for 
the  clothes  to  dry  in  the  air. 


FIG.  77 — Clothes  container  (papier  mach6) . 


112  HOUSEWIFERY 

The  dryer  that  is  most  efficient  for  all  kinds  of  weather  is  the 
indoor-heated  dryer,  because  it  is  not  dependent  upon  sunshine  for 
drying.  Such  a  dryer  may  be  bought  with  a  stove  (Fig.  79)  and  be 
set  up  as  the  house  is  being  built.  It  may  be  built  into  the  corner  of 
the  laundry  (Fig.  80),  and  the  two  walls  so  used  will  reduce  the  cost 
of  installing  the  dryer,  if  bought  complete  and  set  up  as  a  unit. 
These  dryers  are  constructed  like  a  kitchen  stove,  and  use  either  coal, 
gas,  or  electricity.  They  must  be  connected  with  a  flue  so  that 
the  moist  air  from  the  drying  clothes  may  pass  out,  and  not  con- 


FIG.  78. — Revolving  clothes  dryer.     Closes  like  an  umbrella  when  not  in  use. 

dense  on  the  clothes.  In  such  a  dryer,  the  drying  compartment  takes 
the  place  of  the  oven  in  a  stove.  These  dryers  may  be  bought  with 
one,  two,  or  even  three  sections,  and  do  better  work  if  they  have  a 
metal  track  for  the  pulling  out  of  the  racks,  for  wooden  wheels — 
pulley  fashion — shrink  and  crack. 

For  Ironing  Process. — Sprinklers  pay  to  buy,  because  they  do 
the  work  more  rapidly,  evenly,  and  thoroughly,  than  sprinkling  with 
the  hand.  One  of  the  best  kinds  costs  ten  cents  and  with  its  cork 
will  fit  any  bottle.  Other  sprinklers  are  like  flour  or  sugar  shakers, 
or  like  a  bath  spray.  If  one  buys  this  kind,  be  quite  sure  the  holes 
are  very  small. 

Ironing  boards  may  be  found  to  fit  the  various  requirements  of 
different  housekeepers.  Many  need  a  kind  that  occupies  little  space 
when  not  in  use.  The  housekeeper  used  to  have  to  stretch  such  a 
board  between  two  chairs  or  a  table  and  a  chair;  whereas  to-day  it 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  113 


DRYER 


is  possible  to  purchase  a  folding  board  which  fastens  shelf-fashion 

in  a  metal  bracket.     This  bracket  may  be  put  at  any  height,  and 

the  board  quickly  hooked  into  it.     It  is  much  more  efficient  and 

costs  no  more  than  some  of  the  less  substantial  folding  boards. 

Boards   that   are   permanently   set   up 

can  have  a  small  drawer  at  the  right- 

hand  end  for  the  storage  of  wax,  iron 

holder,  wiping  cloth,  and  even  the  iron 

when  cold  could  be  stored  in  this  way. 

This  is  a  good  way  to  store  equipment 

in  a  laundry  or  laboratory  that  is  limited 

in  space.    Most  boards  are   56   inches 

long,  which  is  the  standard  size.     To 

help  in  doing  up  shirtwaists  and  shirts, 

a  square-ended  board  like  those  used 

in  a  commercial  laundry  is  most  useful 

(Fig.  81). 

By  spending  more  money,  a  gas 
stove  may  be  piped  directly  to  the  iron- 
ing board,  making  the  outfit  a  complete 
working  unit,  entirely  saving  the  worker 
from  wasting  time  and  energy  by  walk- 
ing back  and  forth  to  change  irons. 
Elaborate  ironing  equipment  of  this 
kind  may  be  purchased  at  some  cost, 
but  with  a  little  planning  on  the  part 
of  the  housewife,  that  is,  getting  gas 
and  board  together,  she  will  have  good 
equipment  with  little  cost. 

With  an  electric  iron  one  is  more    %w/vvv^^ 

of    clothes 


likely  to  take  the  board  to  the  iron.  FlG-    ^ 

Sometimes  it  would  be  more  satisfac- 

tory to  work  the  other  way  round.    Choose  a  good  light  place  for 

the  ironing  board,  and  have  an  electric  plug  attachment  placed  right 

near  to  connect  the  iron  (Fig.  82).    This  is  a  safer  way  to  use  the 

iron,  because  one  is  not  running  the  risk  of  affecting  the  light. 

(See  chapter  on  Heating  and  Lighting,  page  57.) 

Sleeve  boards  are  labor  savers;  not  that  the  sleeve  may  not  be 
ironed  as  well  without  the  special  board,  but  the  time  and  work  are 
8 


114 


HOUSEWIFERY 


much  reduced.  There  is  no  need  to  pay  the  extra  money  for  a  so- 
called  padded  board,  because  the  padding  is  usually  only  sheet 
wadding,  with  no  lasting  qualities.  Two  or  three  thicknesses  of 
domet  or  outing  flannel  will  make  a  much  better  pad.  Every  house- 
wife may  well  plan  to  have  that  on  hand,  for  it  will  pay  to  buy  some 
remnants  to  use  for  house  cloths,  iron  wipes,  polishing  cloths,  ard 
the  many  times  when  a  heavy  soft  material  is  wanted. 

Ironing-board  Pads. — As  old  blankets  do  not  give  long  service 
on  the  ironing  board,  they  might  preferably  be  kept  for  some  other 


FIQ.  80. — Metal  clothes-drying  cabinet.     Stove  ia  part  of  the  dryer. 

use.  Heavy  silence  cloth,  such  as  is  sold  to  protect  the  dining-room 
table,  makes  a  most  serviceable  padding.  Two  layers  of  the  new, 
or  three  of  the  old,  will  make  a  good  pad.  The  board  is  better  not 
too  much  padded.  Cut  these  felts  large  enough  to  allow  about  two 
inches  for  shrinkage;  thumb  tacks  or  tapes  will  hold  them  firm, 
unless  one  chooses  to  buy  clamps  that  come  for  the  purpose  at  50 
cents  for  three ;  six  would  be  needed. 

Embroidery  pads  are  always  needeH  for  ironing  heavy  embroid- 
ery. These  should  be  made,  and  kept  ready  to  use  as  any  other  equip- 
ment, and  then  there  will  be  less  likelihood  of  using  a  good  towel. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES          115 

A  piece  of  felt  like  that  on  the  ironing  board  may  be  cut  any  size ; 
there  is  no  need  to  have  it  large  and  bulky,  12"  x  18"  is  a  good 
size.  Cover  the  felt  with  muslin ;  sew  the  two  together  so  the  pad 
may  be  easily  cleaned  and  kept  always  ready. 

Ironm^bojj^d-Covers. — Old  sheets  give  no  more  lasting  service 
than  old  blankets,  and  can  be  put  to  much  better  service  than  that 
of  ironing-board  covers.  A  heavy  unbleached  muslin  60"  wide  may 
be  bought,  and  is  most  serviceable.  The  width  of  this  muslin  is 


Fia.  81. — Good  equipment  for  ironing. 

long  enough  to  equal  the  length  of  the  ironing-board  cover.  Cut 
wide  enough  to  turn  under  the  board  about  two  inches  on  each  side, 
put  on  a  half-inch  hem,  and  sew  four  tapes  on  each  side  if  tapes 
are  to  be  used.  Clamps  or  even  pins  are  better  than  tacking, 
as  it  is  better  to  choose  a  fastening  that  is  so  easy  to  remove  that  a 
fresh  cover  is  possible  each  ironing  day  if  needed. 

Stationary  boards  should  have  dust  covers  kept  on  them  when 
not  in  use.  An  easy  way  to  make  them  is  to  cut  them  pillow-slip 
fashion,  large  enough  to  slip  on  easily.  Portable  boards  will  need 
covers  unless  one  has  a  closet  for  laundry  equipment,  where  the 
board  may  stand  away  from  the  dust. 

Irons. — Flat-irons,  or  sad-irons,  are  of  great  service,  but  to  be 
most-efficient  they  should  be  purchased  of  different  shapes  and 


116  HOUSEWIFERY 

weights — from  five  to  eight  pounds,  allowing  one  or  two  small  ones 
for  such  work  as  children's  clothing.  The  usual  number  allowed 
to  an  ironer  is  three;  this  insures  frequent  changes  for  hot  irons. 
Be  sure  the  iron  has  a  smooth  base,  as  irregularities  may  cause  them 
to  catch  in  the  goods  and  mar  such  materials  as  wools  and  silks  by 
leaving  a  mark. 

The  asbestos  irons,  irons  with  removable  asbestos  jacket  and  han- 
dle, or  irons  with  portable  handles,  are  preferred  by  some,  but  are 
likely  not  to  be  as  lasting  as  flat-irons  because  of  the  possibility 
of  the  handle  becoming  loose. 

Puffing  irons  are  not  needed  for  the  ironing  of  puffs  to-day,  but 
if  one  already  owns  one,  it  will  be  of  great  service  in  finishing  small 
gathers  as  baby-dress  sleeves  and  bonnets. 

Iron  holders  may  be  purchased  in  any  department  or  house- 
furnishing  store.  These  usually  have  one  side  of  asbestos.  The 
housekeeper  may  make  one  of  folded  old  stockings,  covered  with 
a  soft,  smooth  outer  cover  of  ticking,  gingham,  or  muslin.  The 
stockings  are  especially  good  as  a  foundation,  because  their  weave 
makes  them  more  or  less  non-conductors  of  heat,  and  because  they 
are  soft  and  easily  fold  about  the  handle  of  the  iron.  Two  iron 
holders  for  each  worker  saves  the  hand,  as  a  cold  holder  is  very 
restful  and  helps  to  prevent  the  hand  from  getting  parched  and 
swollen  from  continual  heat. 

Iron  rests  are  great  savers  to  the  ironing  sheet;  an  asbestos 
sheet,  such  as  is  used  under  a  sheet  cake  tin,  will  also  save  the  end 
of  the  board  where  the  iron  is  set.  Put  a  paper,  wiping  cloth,  iron 
rest,  etc.,  on  top  of  the  asbestos  sheet. 

Gas,  alcohol,  kerosene,  gasoline,  and  electric  irons  (cost,  $3-$6) 
are  labor  savers  because  they  carry  their  heat  with  them,  and  this 
saves  walking  to  and  from  the  stove  to  get  a  hot  iron.  The  avail- 
able fuel  will  determine  which  is  best  to  use.  These  self-heating 
irons  reduce  the  heat  of  the  ironing  room,  and  the  heat  on  the 
worker's  hand ;  and  while  gas  and  electricity  are  the  most  used  and 
seem  the  safest,  it  is  only  a  matter  of  care  and  of  becoming  familiar 
with  the  other  fuels.  The  main  thought  must  be  to  beware  of 
unexpected  draughts  that  may  fan  the  flame.  The  gas-iron  is 
operated  at  the  end  of  a  rubber  gas^pipe ;  this  pipe  will  be  safer  and 
give  greater  service  if  it  is  wound  with  spiral  wire  to  prevent  cracking 
the  rubber.  The  electric  iron  is  sensitive  to  a  fall,  and  to  being  wet ; 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES          117 


for  increasing  its  length  of  service  it  should  have  its  cord  suspended 
by  a  coiled  spring  such  as  is  used  for  a  bird  cage.  To  overheat  the 
iron,  either  by  using  it  too  continually  without  turning  off  the 
power  during  the  ironing  of  small  pieces,  or  by  letting  it  overheat 
through  forgetting  that  it  is  turned  on,  will  soon  burn  out  the  iron. 
A  small  one-candle  incandescent  light  put  in  on  the  electric  con- 
nection will  indicate  when  the  iron  is  on,  and  will  be  a  protection 
against  waste  and  danger.  The  cost  of  installing  such  a  safety  device 
is  small. 


FIG.  82. — Electric  ironing  table. 


FIQ.  83. — Flat-work  ironer. 


Flat-work  ironers,  commonly  called  mangles.  Cost,  $95-$235. 
These  are  especially  helpful  where  one  has  a  great  many  flat  house- 
hold pieces  to  iron.  They  are  not  suited  to  the  ironing  of  body 
clothes,  because  no  gathers,  tucks,  or  buttons  should  be  put  through 
the  machine.  Such  an  ironer  is  not  to  be  used  for  starched  clothes 
because  the  starch  left  on  the  cloth  rolls  will  later  hinder  the  ironing 
of  flat  work. 

The  principle  of  a  mangle  involves  two  or  more  rolls,  which  press 
tightly  on  each  other  as  the  fabric  passes  between  (Fig.  83).  It  is 
the  same  principle  as  that  of  a  clothes  wringer.  The  simplest  ironer 
is  called  a  cold  mangle — costing  about  $10 — which  has  only  two 
hard  wooden  rolls  that  smooth  the  garment  without  any  heat.  It 
does  not  gloss  or  sterilize.  Other  mangles  have  a  steel  roll  which 


118  HOUSEWIFERY 

is  heated  by  gas,  gasoline,  electricity,  or  steam.  This  steel  roll  is 
like  an  iron,  and  the  second  roll  is  cloth  covered  like  an  ironing 
board.  The  iron  and  board  revolve  on  each  other. 

The  efficiency  of  a  mangle  is  increased  by  being  power  driven, 
so  that  the  hands  of  the  worker  are  free  to  attend  to  the  ironing. 
Better  results  are  also  obtained  by  having  the  machine  wide  enough 
to  take  towels,  napkins  in  single  thicknesses,  and  sheets  when 
folded  in  half  lengthwise.  The  economy  of  the  machine,  especially 
if  electrically  heated,  is  increased  by  being  able  to  heat  only  one- 
half  of  it  at  a  time,  as  in  ironing  handkerchiefs  and  other  small 
pieces1.  The  secret  of  good  ironing  is  that  the  cylinders  press  evenly 
on  each  other,  and  also  that  linen  be  slightly  and  evenly  dampened, 
and  allowed  to  stand  some  time  before  ironing.  Good  sprinkling  and 
folding  is  perhaps  more  of  a  help  in  machine  ironing  than  in  hand 
ironing.  A  heated  power  mangle  of  household  size  greatly  reduces 
the  labor  of  ironing  flat- work;  one  family,  for  example,  reported 
that  these  pieces  take  about  one-fifth  the  time  required  for  hand- 
work. 

i  •• 

CLEANING 
MATERIALS  AND  TOOLS  FOR  CLEANING 


Supplies  : 

Vinegar 

Alcohol     (wood    alcohol    may    be 

Wax 

used) 

Whiting 

Ammonia 

Equipm  ent  : 

Bath  brick 

Bowls 

Borax 

Box  or  tray  for  cleaning  materials 

Dutch  cleanser 

Brooms 

Fuller's  earth  or  French  chalk 

Large 

Kerosene 

Small 

Lemon  oil  or  linseed  oil 

Whisk 

Lime 

Brushes 

Oxalic  acid 

Floor,  soft  hair 

Porcella 

Radiator 

Pumice  stone 

Scrubbing,  2  sizes 

Putz  metal  polish 

Spotting 

Rottenstone 

Wall 

Sal-soda 

Carpet  sweeper 

Salt 

Cloths  and  substitutes  — 

Silver  soap  or  cream 

Broom  bag 

Soap 

Cheese  cloth 

Soap  powder 

dusters 

Steel  wool  —  size  oo 

small   cloths 

Turpentine 

Cork 

EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  119 

Cover  cloths,  special  cloths  Knife 

or  old  ticking,  etc.  Measuring  spoon 

Dish  cloth,  tub  cloth  Mop 

Dust  cloth  Oil  can 

Floor  cloth,  loosely  woven  Pails 

Newspapers  Sanitary  tongs 

Polishing  cloth  Scissors 

Tissue  paper  Screw  driver 

Waste    (cotton)  Skewer,  wooden 

Dust  pan  Step  ladder 

Flush  closet  cleaner  Vacuum  cleaner 

Hammer  Wrench 

There  are  here  presented  the  important  items  of  cleaning  equip- 
ment (Fig.  84),  as  brushes,  mops,  cleaning  cloths,  sweeping  mix- 
tures, including  labor-saving  appliances  used  in  this  work.  The 
processes  of  cleaning  and  the  supplies  necessary  are  treated  respec- 
tively in  the  chapters  on  Cleaning  and  Care  (page  240),  and  Sup- 
plies (page  129). 

Brooms  and  Brushes. — It  does  not  pay  to  buy  cheap  brooms 
and  brushes.  The  first  cost  is  less  but  in  the  end  the  cost  will  be 
greater.  The  best  brushes  have  solid  backs  that  are  made  of  hard 
wood  which  does  not  easily  warp;  and  a  good  brush  should  be 
shaped  for  its  special  task.  Solid  backs  are  especially  necessary 
for  scrubbing  brushes.  Upholstery  brushes  should  be  made  of  soft 
hair  like  a  paint  brush.  Some  of  them  are  tapered  at  the  end  for 
the  crevices  and  folds  around  buttons  of  tufted  furniture.  For 
the  dusting  of  portieres,  satins,  and  brocades,  the  regular  soft-haired 
paint  brush  is  most  satisfactory.  Whisk  brooms  are  better  for 
cleaning  heavy  fabrics ;  they  do  not  mark  them  as  they  would  a 
velvet  or  velour.  Long-handled  brushes  with  hair  bristles  for  hard- 
wood floors  will  do  the  work  with  less,  dust,  more  thoroughly,  and 
more  easily.  Silver  brushes  should  be  soft  to  prevent  scratching,  but 
firm  enough  to  get  in  cracks  and  crevices.  They  give  greater  service 
if  bought  in  two  sizes,  one  very  thin  and  narrow  to  clean  around 
handles  and  in  small  grooves.  Old  tooth  brushes'  will  save  the 
purchasing  of  a  more  expensive  brush ;  old  nail  brushes  are  not  so 
good  because  they  are  broad  and  stubby. 

Brooms  should  be  chosen  with  such  good  corn  that  there  are 
no  seeds.  They  may  be  bought  with  two  types  of  handles,  the  light 
bamboo  handle  and  the  heavy  wooden  stick.  The  lighter  broom  is 
a  great  saving  to  the  worker.  Hanging  the  broom  will  do  much 
to  lengthen  its  wear ;  and  if  the  new  broom  is  plunged  into  a  pail 


120 


HOUSEWIFERY 


of  hot  water,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  water  until  it  is  cold,  it 
seems  to  have  a  greater  power  of  endurance.  With  a  hot  wire  or 
skewer,  bore  a  hole  into  the  broom  handle  and  insert  a  heavy 
string  with  which  to  hang  the  broom.  Various  patented  hangers 

are  on  the  market,  most  of 
them  in  the  nature  of  clamps, 
which  hold  the  broom  or 
brush  so  closely  as  to  prevent 
swinging,  which  is  noisy  and 
marks  the  door  or  wall. 

Dust  covers,  to  be  used 
for  covering  up  the  contents 
of  a  room  while  sweeping, 
are  good  cleaning  aids,  be- 
cause they  save  walking, 
carrying,  and  much  extra 
work  that  used  to  be  con- 
sidered part  of  a  thorough 
cleaning.  Unbleached  mus- 
lin may  be  used,  but  checked 
gingham,  or  some  other  ma- 
terial with  a  distinct  pattern 
and  color  which  marks  it 
from  other  sheets  for  the 
house,  is  even  better.  Make 
the  covers  of  such  generous 
size  that  they  may  be  used 
for  pieces  of  furniture  of 
various  sizes  and  shapes.  No 
special  size  can  be  given 
except  to  suggest  that  two  or 
three  covers  should  be  large 
enough  to  cover  a  bed,  a 
couch,  or  the  two  or  three 
large  pieces  in  each  room.  Smaller  ones  are  desirable  for  the  chairs 
and  book  shelves ;  and  several  one-  and  two-yard  squares  of  the  same 
material  should  be  planned  as  covers  for  pictures,  especially  for 
those  pictures  with  heavy  carved  or  ornamented  frames.  Bags 
of  this  material  can  be  made  for  covers,  so  that  the  portieres  may 


Fio.  84. — Tools  for  cleaning. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES 


121 


be  dropped  down  into  the  bag,  and  then,  by  means  of  drawstrings  and 
by  pins,  this  pillowcase  covering  is  brought  up  close  to  the  curtain 
poles,  entirely  covering  the  portiere. 

Long-handled  Dustpans. — Cost,  50  cents  -  75  cents.  The 
housekeeper  will  find  that  the  long-handled  dustpan  (Fig.  85), 
even  though  it  does  cost  about  double  the  price  of  the  short-handled 
one,  will  be  a  great  saving.  It  does  as  good  work,  as  far  as  dust 


FIG.  85. — One    worker    saves    her    back; 
the  other  saves  money. 


FIG.  86. — Three  tools  for  sweeping. 


is  concerned,  as  the  short-handled  one,  and  if  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  small  broom,  often  called  a  child's  broom,  will  be  a 
great  back  saver. 

Dustless  sweeper  materials  aid  very  much  in  the  cleaning 
process,  because  they  reduce  the  amount  of  dusting.  These  mate- 
rials may  be  bought  in  packages  at  twenty-five  cents,  or  in  barrel 
quantities  at  about  ten  dollars.  They  are  usually  finely  ground 
sawdust  or  fine  sand  into  which  oil  has  been  worked.  The  oil  takes 
up  the  dirt  as  the  material  is  swept  along.  Bare  floors  such,  as  tile, 
or  wood  floors,  are  most  easily  swept  with  these  different  sweeping 


122  HOUSEWIFERY 

materials.  The  sand  in  most  of  the  materials  makes  them  inefficient 
in  carpet  or  rug  sweeping,  because  it  settles  in  the  carpat  and  is 
hard  to  remove.  The  housewife  may  make  dustless  sweeper  material 
by  using  left-aver  tea  leaves,  or  by  tearing  bits  of  newspaper  which 
have  been  sprinkled  with  water.  Sprinkle  either  the  tea  leaves  or 
the  paper  on  the  carpet  or  floor,  and  as  they  are  tossed  ahead  of  the 
broom  they  gather  the  dirt.  A  moistened  broom  is  a  dustless 

sweeper,  but  hard  on  the  colors 
of  the  carpet  or  on  the  polish  of 
the  floors. 

Carpet  Sweeper. — Cost, 
$3-$6.  This  is  a  small  box  on 
wheels,  containing  revolving 
brushes  which  turn  as  the  box 
is  pushed  over  the  floor.  It 
makes  no  dust,  is  easily  oper- 
ated, takes  up  threads,  and  is 
FIG.  IT— Vacuum  sweeper  .excellent  for  removing  surface 

dirt. 

Vacuum  Sweeper.— Cost,  $6-$12.  These  sweepers  (Fig.  87) 
are  combined  carpet  sweepers  and  vacuum  cleaners;  they  have  the 
revolving  brush  of  the  carpet  sweeper,  and  the  bellows  suction  of 
the  vacuum  sweeper.  Their  cost  is  not  excessive,  and  they  are 
most  satisfactory,  with  no  more  fatigue  than  with  the  carpet  sweeper. 
Vacuum  Cleaners. — Cost,  $35-$125.  The  so-called  vacuum 
cleaners  (Figs.  88  and  89)  are  divided  into  piston,  bellows,  and  fan 
types.  As  washing  machines  may  be  divided  into  hand  and  power  ma- 
chines, so  may  vacuum  cleaners ;  and  the  question  comes  again  as  to 
whether  a  hand  tool  which  involves  so  much  work  on  the  part  of  the 
operator  is  a  labor  saver.  The  piston  and  bellows  types  may  be  bought 
in  the  hand  machines ;  these  are  not  truly  labor  savers,  but  are  dust 
savers.  The  piston  is  like  a  water  shotgun,  in  that  the  drawing  up 
of  the  plunger  leaves  a  vacuum  into  which  air  goes,  carrying  with  it 
the  dirt.  This  receiving  chamber  is  lined  with  a  soft  woolly  material 
to  which  the  dirt  adheres.  These  are  small,  inexpensive,  and  easily 
carried,  but  require  a  great  deal  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 
The  big  power  machines  are  divided  into  fan  type  and  bellows 
type,  and  may  or  may  not  have  some  form  of  brush.  Sometimes 
these  brushes  are  bristles ;  sometimes  they  are  flat  revolving  bits  of 
rubber.  As  the  brush  passes  over  the  rug  in  the  same  way  that  the 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  123 

carpet  sweeper  does,  it  stirs  up  the  dust  and  throws  it  back  ready 
for  the  suction  to  receive  it.  These  machines  are  easily  operated, 
efficient  in  their  work,  if  they  have  sufficient  suction,  are  not 


FIG.  88. — Vacuum  cleaner.     Courtesy  Franz-Premier. 

necessarily  very  expensive.  The  bags  into  which  the  dust  is  sucked 
up  are  usually  about  equal  in  efficiency;  they  are  dust  proof  and 
under  ordinary  conditions  need  not  be  washed. 

The  larger  and  more  powerful  machines,  while  more  efficient 


124  HOUSEWIFERY 

from  the  point  of  view  of  producing  a  better  suction,  since  their 
weight  keeps  them  close  to  the  floor,  are  so  heavy  that  they  are 
difficult  for  the  housewife  to  operate.  The  most  powerful  and  most 
expensive  machines  cost  several  hundred  dollars  and  are  built  to  be 
established  in  the  basement  of  the  house  with  pipes  extending 
throughout  the  house.  If  this  type  of  machine  is  to  be  used,  it  should 
be  planned  for  when  the  house  is  built,  so  that  the  various  pipe 
connections  may  be  made  in  the  baseboards  of  each  room,  and  lead 
back  to  the  cellar.  A  flexible  hose  then  connects  the  cleaner  in  any 
desired  room  with  the  permanent  pipe  opening  in  the  baseboard. 

The  housewife  should  consider  the  weight  of  the  machine;  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  cared  for ;  the  convenience  in  oiling ;  the 
size  of  slot  in  the  suction  end,  and  facilities  for  keeping  the  slot  on 
the  floor,  so  that  it  is  always  close  to  the  nig  or  carpet ;  and  the  final 
test,  how  much  dust,  if  any,  is  left  in  the  rug  after  cleaning.  There 
is  no  better  way  to  settle  this  latter  question  than  to  beat  the  rug 
and  see  how  much  dust  can  be  raised. 

The  cheaper  machines  are  usually  lighter  in  weight  and  have  a 
smaller  motor ;  the  better  machines  should  have  good  weight,  good 
suction,  and  the  longer  slot,  which  is  an  advantage  in  any  machine. 
The  question  as  to  whether  the  machine  should  have  a  brush  or  not 
is  still  not  decided.  Some  of  the  so-called  brushes  are  hardly  worthy 
of  the  name.  What  seems  more  important  is  whether  the  nozzle 
is  wide  and  so  swivelled  as  to  adjust  itself  to  irregularities  of  move- 
ment of  the  worker,  and  whether  the  motor  is  substantial  and  of 
good  size. 

Remember  that  the  suction  is  broken  when  the  slot  is  not  close 
to  the  fabric  to  be  cleaned.  Vacuum  cleaners  are  not  wood  polishers, 
but  fabric  cleaners;  are  not  washers,  but  collectors  of  loose  dirt. 
They  themselves  must  be  kept  clean. 

Mops. — Cost,  40  cents  to  $1.50.  The  use  of  a  mop,  whether  for 
dusting  or  for  scrubbing,  affords  a  great  saving  of  strength,  because 
it  eliminates  bending  and  stooping.  There  are  two  types  of  mops 
used  in  cleaning.  A  plain  deck  mop,  one  with  strings  fastened 
in  a  circle  around  a  wooden  handle,  makes  a  good  dry  dust  mop. 
A  second  type  is  the  broad  flat  mop;  in  this  the  strings  or  pieces  of 
cloth  are  held  in  a  flat  metal  clasp  attached  to  a  wooden  handle. 
This  type  of  mop  is  best  for  scrubbing  because  it  wrings  better  than 
a  round  one,  either  in  patented  mop  wringers  or  by  hand ;  besides, 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  125 


it  slips  under  places  better  than  does  the  thicker  round  deck  mop. 

The  housekeeper  can  make  a  mop  like  the  round  ones  by  using 
an  old  broom  handle  and  tying  about  the  end  of  the  stick  pieces 
of  old  undershirts  or  stockings,  and  then  turning  them  back  over  the 
tied  part  and  tying  a  second  time.  With  the  mop  which  has  the 
flat  clasp  fastened  to  a  handle,  similar  old  cloths  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  woven  cloth  that  comes  especially  for  this  purpose. 

Dustless  mops  are  string  mops  with  shorter  strings  which  are 
treated  with  an  oil.  This  oil  should  be  in 
small  amounts,  just  enough  to  make  the 
cloth  hold  loose  dirt.  If  too  much  oil  is 
used  on  a  dustless  mop  or  duster,  it  will 
leave  a  greasy  surface  which  will  soon 
attract  dust.  Continual  dusting  of  this 
kind  will  make  the  wood  dark  and  cloudy. 

Mop  Wringer. — Cost,  $2.  This  is  a 
real  labor  saver  because  it  saves  arm  and 
wrist  strain  in  wringing,  and  protects  the 
hands  from  chapping  through  being  con- 
stantly wet;  besides  doing  the  work  more 
thoroughly.  The  wringer  should  be  bought 
with  regard  to  the  mop,  because  size, 
shape  and  thickness  of  the  mop  decide  to 
some  extent  the  kind  of  mop  wringer  to 
buy.  It  fits  on  the  mopping  pail  (Figs. 
90  and  91). 

Cleaning  cloths  are  legion  to-day,  but 
after  all,  the  housekeeper  with  experience 
will  learn  that  she  can  buy  material  by  the  FlG*  89.— Vacuum  cleaner, 
yard  of  regular  standard  type,  and  feel  quite  assured  that  she  has 
good  cleaning  material  without  too  much  additional  expense.  With- 
out buying  anything,  good  cloths  may  often  be  made  from  old  worn 
garments,  if  they  are  clean,  non-scratching,  and  non-linting.  Many 
different  materials  may  be  used.  For  cleaning  materials  that  are 
purchased  plain  cheesecloth,  either  unbleached,  which  is  the  cheap- 
est, or  white  cheesecloth  for  a  few  cents  more,  and  domet  flannel 
(the  household  name  for  it  is  outing  flannel),  represent  two  standard 
types.  Cheesecloth  makes  very  good  dusters,  and,  when  wrung 
very  dry  out  of  water,  is  good  for  cleaning  and  may  foe  used  with 


126 


HOUSEWIFERY 


the  outing  flannel  for  polishing  furniture.  Outing  flpjinel  makes 
good  floor  cloths,  broom  bags  (Fig.  92,  A  and  B),  wall  wipes,  and 
may  be  used  for  polishing  cloths.  The  first  requirement  is  that  the 
cloth  be  clean,  free  from  scratchy  material,  absorbent,  and  non- 


linting. 


FIG.  90. — The  long-handled  scrub  brush,  FIG.  91. — The  mop  and  wringer  means 
with  its  ball-and-socket  adjustment,  is  a  most  that  a  woman  need  never  scrub  on  her 
complete  scrub  brush.  knees. 

In  response  to  the  demand  to-day  for  more  rapid  work,  special 
polishing  cloths  are  made,  which  are  treated  with  chemicals  and 
powders  that  make  unnecessary  other  cleaning  powders  or  mix- 
tures; these  are  used  for  cleaning  silver  and  other  metals.  Their 
usual  cost  is  at  least  twenty-five  cents.  (See  chapter  on  Supplies, 
page  134.)  These  cloths 3  when  not  in  use,  should  be  kept  in  a  box 
or  a  paper  wrapping,  so  as  to  prevent  their  getting  any  extra  soil. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT 

Sewing  machines  may  be  had  in  various  types,  and  should  be 
found  in  every  home.  The  disappearing  head  machine  in  which 


EQUIPMENT  AND  LABOR-SAVING  APPLIANCES  127 

the  sewing  mechanism  folds  down  into  the  case,  leaving  a  compact 
flat  top  cabinet,  is  one  desirable  type.  Electric  motors  are  now  avail- 
able to  run  any  sewing  machine  ($15),  and  a  special  machine  with 
the  electric  motor  attached  may  be  had  for  about  $40.  With  the 
small  motor  suggested  below,  the  regular  sewing  machine  may  be 
operated  by  attaching  a  belt  from  the  wheel  of  the  motor  to  the 
wheel  of  the  machine,  although  speed  adjustment  may  be  difficult. 


FIG.   92. — At   various  types  of  floor  cloths;  B,  broom  bags  found  ready  made  in  stores. 
Domet  flannel  makes  good  broom  bags. 

Small  Electric  Motor. — Cost,  $15-$4:0.  Efficiency  students 
who  are  working  with  small  electric  motors  for  household  use, 
pronounce  them  almost  human  in  their  serviceableness.  Such  a 
motor  should  be  placed  where  it  will  be  of  most  use,  and  when  one 
is  purchased  separate  motors  for  individual  appliances  are  not 
needed.  Such  a  motor  could  work  the  coffee  mill,  the  sewing 
machine,  the  ice-cream  freezer,  the  bread  mixer,  and  the  washing 
machine.  Each  machine  must  have  a  wheel  for  the  belt  which  in 


128  HOUSEWIFERY 

turn  must  be  kept  tight,  and  the  motor  must  have  power  to  do  the 
work.  Voltage  and  current  must  be  considered.  (See  chapter  on 
Heating  and  Lighting,  page  60.) 

Klectric  Fan. — Cost,  $5  up.  An  electric  fan  gives  great  service 
not  only  for  use  in  the  kitchen  and  laundry  during  hot  weather, 
but  also  for  use  in  the  rest  portion  of  the  house.  Modern  science 
shows  that  we  keep  cool  by  rapidly  changing  the  layer  of  air  that 
surrounds  us.  On  a  cold  day  a  fan  directed  against  the  steam-  or 
hot-water  radiator  will  more  quickly  warm  a  room.  A  fan  is  used 
in  the  latest  method  of  drying  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Canning  Outfit. — The  outfit  may  consist  of  a  pressure  cooker 
($8-$10),  a  soldering  outfit,  and  a  supply  of  tin  cans,  or  of  glass 
cans  with  new  rubbers  if  preferred.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  now 
also  preserved  by  drying  in  an  oven,  by  the  sun,  or  by  air  currents 
from  an  electric  fan.  The  small  utensils  needed  can  of  course  be 
taken  from  the  regular,  kitchen  outfit. 

Milk  Separator. — In  the  farm  home,  a  milk  separator  is  indis- 
pensable. It  is  operated  either  by  hand  or  by  power ;  a  power  separa- 
tor should  b©  had  if  much  milk  is  to  be  handled.  The  separator 
is  a  centrifuge  in  which,  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  a  bowl  or 
cylinder^  containing  whole  milk,  the  heavier  part  or  the  skim  milk 
is  thrown  out  toward  the  circumference,  and  the  light  part  or  cream 
is  held  toward  the  center,  each  passing  out  of  the  "separator"  by 
an  appropriate  outlet.  While  separators  vary  in  construction,  the 
principle  that  the  revolution  throws  the  heavier  liquid  to  the  outer 
circumference  is  the  same  in  all.  The  housekeeper  must,  of  course, 
be  very  careful  that  the  separator  be  kept  clean  'and  sweet-smelling. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  ways  would  you  increase  the  efficiency  of  a  washing  machine? 

2.  What  care  should  be  given  to  a  vacuum  cleaner  ? 

3.  Were  an  electric  motor  or  a  gasoline  engine  to  be  attached  to  a  sewing 

machine  or  a  washing  machine,   what  special   care  must  be  used   in 
making  the  connections  so  as  to  get  the  most  economical  service? 

4.  What  care  should  be  given  to  an  electric  motor  on  a  machine? 

5.  List  five  labor  savers  that  are  not  operated  by  a  motor. 

REFERENCES 
BALDERSTON,  L.  RAY,  LAUNDERING.      L.  Ray  Balderston,   1224  Cherry  St., 

Phila. 
COOLEY,  M.   S.,   VACUUM   CLEANING  SYSTEMS.      Heating  and   Ventilating 

Magazine  Co. 

MACLEOD,  SARAH,  HANDBOOK  OF  CLEANING.      Harper  &.  Bros. 
PARLOA,  MARIA,  HOME  ECONOMICS.      Century  Co. 


CHAPTER  YI 
HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES 

SUPPLIES  go  hand  in  hand  with  tools,  so  that  the  two  together 
may  rightly  be  called  the  working  equipment.  In  buying  supplies, 
as  in  selecting  tools,  the  housewife  should  consider :  quality,  price, 
and  quantity;  and  there  is  always  the  question  of  the  kind  of  sup- 
plies best  fitted  to  a  task.  In  many  cases  there  may  be  two  or  three 
equally  good  for  a  given  use  so  that  the  housekeeper  must  make  a 
personal  selection.  There  may  be  no  reason  for  one  choice  over 
another  except  likes  and  dislikes,  that  large  personal  equation  which 
keeps  housekeeping  more  or  less  an  individual  problem,  and  which 
will  always  prevent  any  complete  standardizing  of  its  tasks. 

This  chapter  presents  general  rules  in  buying,  applicable  to  all 
household  supplies,  and  then  presents  standards  for  selecting 
cleaners  and  polishes,  soaps,  starch,  blues,  sewing  supplies  and  paper 
and  desk  supplies  for  the  home. 

Rules  for  Buying  All  Supplies. — Choose  a  reliable  store,  where 
standards  are  good — this  means  fast  colors ;  weight  as  stated ;  fresh 
goods ;  percentage  of  moisture,  coarseness,  etc.,  standard ;  size,  meas- 
ure, or  count  accurate. 

Learn  by  experience  which  are  your  best  stores  and  keep  to  them ; 
if  you  are  new  in  the  neighborhood,  go  to  the  store  where  the  stand- 
ard seems  too  high  to  sell  falsely. 

Select  the  goods  personally;  until  you  know  the  store  and  the 
goods,  and  the  store  knows  you,  do  not  buy  over  the  'phone  or 
through  a  catalogue. 

Check  up  the  amount,  the  quality,  and  the  price  on  returning 
home ;  this  will  be  the  best  study  towards  becoming  an  expert  buyer. 

Buy  regular  standard  necessities  when  special  sales  are  offered, 
but  be  sure  to  know  the  regular  price  and  regular  quality. 

Buy  only  what  is  needed  and  can  be  used.  It  is  not  a  bargain  if 
it  lies  on  the  shelf  until  it  deteriorates. 

Be  considerate  of  clerks. 

Do  not  demand  impossibilities. 

Know  what  is  wanted,  hence  reduce  delivery  sen  ice  and  elim- 
inate return  service. 


130  HOUSEWIFERY 

Either  pay  cash  or  settle  the  bills  promptly;  stores  demanding 
cash  can  sell  more  cheaply ;  you  pay  more  for  the  privilege  of  charg- 
ing— it  may  'be  worth  the  extra  cost,  but  do  your  share  by  paying 
bills  promptly. 

Patronize  stores  for  special  supplies;  e.g.,  the  paint  store,  the 
laundry  supply  house.  Laundry  supply  houses  are  established  in  all 
large  cities  and  the  quality  they  handle  is  quite  assured.  Parcel 
post  makes  it  possible  to  send  an  order ;  for  after  using  any  supply, 
it  can  easily  be  obtained  again  through  its  number  or  size. 

CLEANERS  AND  POLISHES 

The  housekeeper  who  plans  to  do  a  great  deal  of  the  renewing 
or  renovating  of  woodwork  will  need  a  small  amount  of  many  sup- 
plies. As  the  amount  needed  will  often  be  less  than  she  can  buy, 
she  will  have  to  plan  for  storage  either  by  buying  suitable  containers 
or  by  purchasing  supplies  in  containers  at  perhaps  extra  cost.  The 
matter  of  containers  must  be  considered  because  much  of  this  kind 
of  material  is  either  poisonous  or  inflammable.  Label  everything 
plainly  (a  little  shellac  will  assure  the  labels  sticking)  and  store 
away  from  the  fire.  Remember  even  the  cloths  and  brushes  used 
in  this  work,  if  not  washed,  must  be  stored  in  closed  tin  pails  or 
etone  crocks. 

Beeswax  is  purchasable  at  the  paint  store  or  in  the  laundry 
supply  house.  Beeswax  is  the  foundation  of  floor  wax  (see  chapter 
on  Renovation,  page  295),  and  the  same  wax  is  used  for  waxing 
irons.  It  is  sold  as  yellow  or  white  wax,  but  usually  is  yellow,  which 
is  not  only  best  but  less  expensive. 

Paraffin  wax  is  made  from  petroleum,  and  is  often  sold 
as  white  wax.  It  is  the  best  wax  for  white  goods  because  the 
yellow  wax  is  likely  to  darken  the  wood.  It  is  also  used  in  laundering. 

Paraffin  oil  is  distilled  as  an  after-product  in  distilling  kero- 
sene. It  is  a  non-fatty  oil,  and  therefore  is  most  excellent  for  pol- 
ishing woods.  It  mixes  well  with  alcohol  or  turpentine  and  on 
account  of  color  is  good  for  light  woods. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  oil  pressed  from  linseed,  and  may  be  pur- 
chased at  the  same  place  as  the  wax.  It  is  sold  as  raw  or  boiled. 
The  raw  oil  is  the  crude  oil  pressed  from  the  seeds  without  warm- 
ing them ;  the  boiled  oil  has  been  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  increase 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  131 

its  drying  power.  For  almost  all  household  uses  such  as  floors,  wood- 
work, and  furniture,  the  boiled  linseed  oil  is  used. 

Kerosene  is  useful  as  a  cleaning  oil,  because  it  dissolves  rosin 
and  wax ;  it  is  used  for  cleaning  machinery,  rusty  iron,  etc.  It  is  in 
no  way  a  lubricating  oil  like  a  machine  oil. 

Lemon  oil  is  a  volatile  oil  obtained  from  pressing  the  rinds  of 
lemons,  oranges,  tangarines,  or  limes.  The  finer  qualities  are  used 
for  perfumes  or  flavorings,  while  the  cruder  oils  which  are  added  to 
light  petroleum  products  may  be  purchased  in  paint  shops  or  house- 
furnishing  stores,  to  be  used  for  the  oiling  of  lighter  colored  woods, 
and  are  often  used  as  floor  oils.  This  oil  is  volatile  enough  to  dry 
almost  immediately,  affording  less  opportunity  for  it  to  gather  dust. 

Turpentine  is  a  distilled  rosin-like  liquid  made  from  the  pitch- 
pine  tree.  The  volatile  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine  passes  over  first 
in  the  distillation,  and  the  residue  is  rosin.  When  fresh,  turpentine 
is  almost  colorless  and  odorless,  growing  darker,  so  dark  as  to  make 
a  stain  of  its  own  if  used  as  it  so  often  is  to  remove  paint  from 
clothing.  Combined  with  wax  (see  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Keno- 
vation,  page  295),  it  makes  an  excellent  floor  wax. 

Turpentine  should  be  kept  away  from  fires  and  should  be  stored 
in  tightly  closed  containers.  Brushes  and  cloths  used  with  turpen- 
tine should  be  washed  or  burned,  or  kept  in  tightly  closed  cans  or 
crocks  after  their  use. 

Naphtha  and  benzine  are  sold  as  one  and  the  same.  Like 
kerosene  and  gasoline  they  are  derived  from  mineral  oil;  they  are 
volatile  (second  only  to  gasoline)  and  give  off  inflammable  vapors. 
They  should  always  be  used  with  great  care,  with  windows  open  and 
no  fires  or  open  light  about,  and  should  be  kept  tightly  closed  when 
not  in  use.  Naphtha  dissolves  rubber  and  is  used  like  kerosene  for 
cleaning  the  rolls  of  clothes  wringers  (see  rubber  goods,  chapter  on 
Storage,  page  235)  ;  it  dissolves  fat  and  is  used  for  cleaning  fabrics; 
it  dissolves  varnish  and  a  drop  on  the  rubbing  cloth  will  often  restore 
wood  marred  by  heat ;  it  kills  vermin  and  is  one  of  the  insecticides 
most  used  for  bedbugs,  ants,  and  fleas  (see  chapter  on  Household 
Pests,  pages  312,  314). 

Gasoline  is  nearly  as  volatile  and  inflammable  as  naphtha 
and  benzine,  and  should  be  used  with  the  utmost  care  to  prevent  fire. 
With  any  one  of  the  three  materials,  have  all  windows  open,  and 
no  flames  present  from  matches,  lamps,  or  stoves;  and  after  its 


132  HOUSEWIFERY 

use  allow  plenty  of  time  for  thorough  airing  before  bringing  the 
article  into  service.  This  is  especially  true  for  mattresses  or  up- 
holstered furniture  that  may  have  been  gasolined  for  moths  or  other 
pests.  Such  thick  material  would  be  slow  to  allow  evaporation  of 
gasoline.  Clothing  that  has  been  gasolined  and  thoroughly  aired  for 
several  hours  may  be  placed  in  a  warm  place,  as  heat  will  drive  off 
the  last  unpleasant  odors.  Pressing  with  a  warm  iron  produces 
the  same  result.  But  apply  no  heat  until  after  thorough  airing. 

Machine  oil  should  be  of  the  best,  free  from  rosin  or  any  gum., 
and  its  quality  will  soon  be  proved  because  no  gum  residue  will 
form  to  hinder  the  action  rather  than  lubricate.  Good  sewing 
machine  oil  can  be  used  for  oiling  washing  machines,  sewing  or 
sweeping  machines,  or  other  household  machinery. 

Furniture  Polishes. — Prepared  furniture  polishes  may  be  ex- 
pensive, and  too  often  contain  quite  a  little  varnish  which  if  used 
too  frequently  will  result  in  a  sticky  gum  deposit  on  the  furniture. 
Cheap  varnishes  contain  rosin  which  will  in  time  give  a  sticky 
finish.  It  is  a  little  more  work  to  make  a  preparation,  but  if  one 
has  the  ingredients  in  the  house  to  use  separately  at  various  times, 
why  not  take  time  to  combine  them. 

Miss  Parloa1  gives  standard  directions  for  the  two  following 
preparations : 

Furniture  Cleaner  and  Polisher. — Put  into  a  quart  bottle,  in 
the  order  named: 

%  cup  powdered  rottenstone 

%  cup  cold-drawn  linseed  oil 

y2  cup  turpentine 

1/2  cup  naphtha 

1/2  cup  strong  solution  oxalic  acid 

14  cup  wood  alcohol 

3/2  cup  cold  water  to  which  has  been  added 
1  tablespoon  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Wax  for  Polishing  Furniture. — 

1  Ib.  beeswax 
1  pt.  turpentine 
y2  pt.  alcohol. 

1  Parloa,  Maria,  Home  Economics,  pages  332,  333. 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  133 

Melt  wax  in  an  earthen  bowl  over  water.  When  melted,  withdraw 
from  the  fire  and  with  a  wooden  spoon  stir  the  other  two  ingredients 
into  the  wax.  Stir  continuously  so  the  wax  as  it  cools  may  hold 
the  liquids.  The  mixture  when  finished  is  a  grayish  cream  paste 
ready  to  he  used  any  time.  Apply  with  a  soft  woolen  cloth,  using 
only  the  least  possible  amount,  but  with  much  rubbing. 

Rottenstone  is  a  fine  gray  powder  not  unlike  powdered  pumice 
in  appearance  and  action.  It  may  be  bought  as  pumice  stone  or  pow- 
dered tripoli  at  the  paint  shop.  Like  any  gritty  substance,  it  works 
best  with  a  lubricator  like  oil.  In  this  way  it  cleans  and  polishes. 
Either  powder  may  be  purchased  by  the  pound  and  stored  any 
length  of  time. 

Steel  wool  is  a  polishing  material,  sold  in  packages  at  the  paint 
shop.  It  is  steel  shavings  and  may  be  bought  in  graded  sizes  like 
sandpaper.  The  heavier,  coarser  wool  is  more  like  shavings  and  is 
especially  good  to  be  used  like  heavy  sandpaper  on  coarse  uneven 
wood.  Like  the  heavy  sandpaper  it  will  clean  rapidly  but  leaves  a 
deeply  scratched  surface  which  will  need  to  be  smoothed  down  by 
using  either  very  fine  sandpaper  or  the  steel  wool  that  is  so  fine  it  is 
like  hair.  This  finer  is  graded  as  <(  00."  Any  of  it  may  be  bought 
in  ten-  and  fifteen-cent  packages. 

Metal  polishes  are  usually  sold  as  pastes,  powders,  or  liquids  and 
are  many  in  number.  One  distinction  may  be  made,  that  silver 
and  gold  polishes  should  be  free  from  grit  and  contain  no  acids; 
while  brass,  copper,  and  nickel  polishes  usually  contain  some  acid. 
Aluminum  polish  should  have  no  alkali  like  soda  or  potash. 

These  cleaners,  like  many  supplies,  should  be  bought  in  small 
rather  than  large  jars,  as  part  of  the  material  is  very  volatile  and 
the  whole  content  is  likely  to  dry  and  be  wasted.  Keep  the  covers 
on ;  take  the  paste  out  on  the  cloth  rather  than  put  the  cloth  in  the 
jar.  Moisten  with  alcohol  when  moisture  is  necessary.  Keep  the 
covers  tightly  screwed  when  not  in  use.  If  a  liquid,  always  shake 
before  using. 

Silver  Cleaners. — A  good  silver  cleaner  may  be  standardized 
from  two  viewpoints  somewhat  as  follows :  For  the  preservation  of 
the  silver,  the  best  cleaner  should  be  free  from  strong  chemicals,  and 
from  coarse  abrasive  material ;  it  should  leave  a  good  color  tone — 
not  a  steel-like  brightness.  For  the  comfort  of  the  worker,  the 


134  HOUSEWIFERY 

cleaner  should  be  free  from  dust,  and  should  not  involve  too  much 
labor  and  time  in  its  use. 

Silver  cleaners  are  divided  into  five  groups:  the  rouge  cloths, 
powders,  pastes,  soaps  (prepared  mixtures),  cleaning  pans 
(frontispiece). 

The  rouge  cloths  are  soft  cloths  of  the  nature  of  outing  flannel, 
dipped  into  a  cleaning  mixture  which  adheres  to  the  cloth.  They 
are  effective  cleaners,  and  very  satisfactory  for  one  having  only 
jewelry  or  bedroom  silver  to  clean,  or  for  one  travelling.  They 
are  expensive  to  use  for  a  large  household,  because  the  cloths  are 
very  small  and  soon  wear  into  a  hole,  and  cannot  be  renovated. 
(See  Cleaning  Equipment,  page  118.)  These  cloths  are  not  washed, 
but  the  silver,  after  having  been  cleaned  with  them,  should  be 
washed  thoroughly,  as  after  all  other  cleaners. 

Powders  may  be  bought  under  trade  names,  or,  more  cheaply, 
as  whiting  or  calcium  carbonate,  which  is  sold  in  packages  labelled 
"  Paris  White/'  -costing  from  five  to  ten  cents  a  pound.  The  disad- 
vantage of  the  powders  is  that  they  create  considerable  dust,  which 
is  disagreeable  for  the  worker  and  necessitates  an  extra  dusting 
after  their  use.  This  disadvantage  may  be  partly  overcome  by 
moistening  the  powder  with  a  few  drops  of  water  or  alcohol;  use 
only  enough  to  make  the  powder  into  a  thick  paste.  Owing  to  the 
objection  to  this  dust,  many  of  the  former  cleaning  powders  have 
been  converted  by  the  manufacturers  into  pastes,  so  that  now  the 
housewife  may  have  her  favorite  cleaner  in  a  form  all  ready  to  use. 

The  pastes  and  soaps  are  both  satisfactory  because  they  create 
no  dust ;  another  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  careless  worker 
cannot  possibly  avoid  washing  the  silver  afterward.  The  soaps  are 
probably  less  wasteful  than  the  pastes,  but  are  no  more  satisfactory 
as  cleaners. 

Various  "  silver  cleaning  pans  "  are  now  on  the  market.  Their 
action  is  very  rapid,  so  much  so  that  the  housewife  may  question 
whether  there  is  not  possibly  a  harmful  effect  on  the  silver.  While 
the  action  is  chemical,  it  is  more  in  the  nature  of  electrolysis.  In  a 
cleaning  pan,  or  a  device  to  be  put  into  a  pan,  there  are  usually 
two  metals,  zinc  and  aluminum;  baking  soda,  salt,  and  hot  water 
are  the  reagents  used ;  when  ^he  silver  is  put  into  the  pan,  it  rests  on 
an  aluminum  base  which  is  to  a  certain  extent  like  an  electrode,  and 
action  takes  place  between  the  metals  and  the  chemicals.  The 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  .      135 

question  as  to  whether  the  silver  is  injured  by  such  a  method  may  be 
answered  by  an  examination  of  the  cleaned  silver  under  a  magnifying 
glass.  The  surface  will  be  found  to  be  much  less  "  irritated  "  than 
that  of  silver  rubbed  with  some  one  of  the  polishes.  The  loss  by 
weight  is  negligible.  However,  the  silver  will  not  have  a  soft  satiny 
appearance  after  such  cleaning.  It  seems  that  such  a  method  with 
these  pans,  if  not  over-used,  is  not  any  more  detrimental  than  any 
other  method  of  cleaning  silver.  (See  also  chapters  on  Kitchen 
Equipment,  page  97,  and  Cleaning  and  Care,  page  263.) 

Whiting  is  conveniently  bought  in  pound  packages.  As  it  is 
the  foundation  of  most  cleaners,  much  can  be  done  by  buying  whit- 
ing and  making  it  into  a  paste  with  a  liquid  as  indicated  below. 
The  liquid  probably  plays  a  two-fold  part,  forming  the  powder  into 
a  paste,  and  supplying  a  dirt,  grease  or  metal  solvent.  Whiting 
with  alcohol  (wood  or  denatured)  for  silver;  whiting  with  ammonia 
for  nickel;  whiting  with  dilute  acid  (see  below)  (kerosene 
may  be  added)  for  metals :  aluminum,  brass,  copper,  nickel ;  whiting 
with  warm  water  for  white  enamel  paint;  whiting  with  steel  wool 
for  aluminum. 

Bath  brick  is  now  put  up  in  package  form  as  a  powdered  brick 
dust,  and  is  much  more  satisfactory.  The  old  bath  brick  was  sold  in 
brick  form,  and  had  to  be  pulverized  as  needed.  It  is  the  best  steel 
cleaner,  and  can  also  be  used  as  the  grit  to  clean  soiled  pots  and  pans. 

Acids. — Oxalic  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  salts  of  lemon,  and 
citric  acid,  are  of  special  service  in  the  home.  They  are  used  to 
remove  spots  from  clothing  such  as  iron  rust,  ink  (see  chapter  on 
Renovation,  page  275)  ;  or  as  cleaners  when  mixed  with  oils  and 
abrasive  materials,  as  in  furniture  polishes  and  cleaners;  and  as 
cleaners  for  metals  in<  dissolving  the  dark  oxides  such  as  form  with 
any  exposed  metal.  These  acids  are  poisons,  hence  should  be  used 
with  great  care,  so  that  they  will  not  be  mistaken,  for  some- 
thing else,  and  so  that  every  trace  will  be  washed  out  of  all  dishes 
used  in  cooking  and  serving.  These  acids  should  be  properly 
labelled  and  stored  where  children  can  not  reach  them.  For 
cleaning  kettles,  vinegar  or  lemon  juice  will  do  the  same  work 
in  a  slower  way  but  without  the  risk  of  handling  a  poison. 

Ammonia. — The  housewife  will  find  it  economical  to  buy  con- 
centrated ammonia  and  dilute  it  with  water,  using  1  part  ammonia 


136  HOUSEWIFERY 

to  5  parts  of  water.  The  best  quality  of  ammonia  is  cloudy.  For 
scouring,  ammonia  in  solid  form  is  sold  in  cans  as  ammonium 
carbonate,  but  the  liquid  ammonia  diluted  is  best  for  all  purposes. 

SOAP,  SODA  AND  SCOURERS 

Soap. — A  good  soap  is  one  that  is  free  from  alkali  (either  soda 
or  potash)  and  from  any  coloring  which  could  hide  impurities  in  the 
soap.  Clean  fat  is  light  yellow  or  white,  and  if  the  soap  is  made 
from  clean  fat  it  will  naturally  be  a  very  light  color. 

Alkali  can  be  detected  by  a  pungent  odor,  which  cannot  come 
from  rosin  if  the  soap  is  light  or  white.  It  is  also  possible  to  recog- 
nize the  presence  of  alkali  by  the  shrivelled,  drawn,  and  finally 
dried  feeling  of  the  hands  after  its  use.  A  surer  test  is  to  use  a 
piece  of  moistened  red  litmus  paper.  Moisten  it  with  clean  water 
(not  by  the  saliva  of  the  mouth),  and  lay  the  paper  on  the  soap  to 
be  tested,  choosing  a  fresh  cut  surface  preferably  in  the  center  of  the 
cake.  If  there  is  excess  alkali  present,  the  red  paper  will  quickly 
turn  blue.  Soap  salesmen  test  for  alkali  by  holding  a  bit  of  soap  in 
the  mouth  to  see  if  it  bites  the  tongue.  Alkali  is  caustic. 

Rosin  can  be  detected  by  the  odor,  by  the  stickiness  of  the  soap, 
and  by  the  gummy,  sticky  scum  decidedly  resinous  in  character, 
which  forms  on  the  water  line  of  the  clothes  boiler.  It  is  to  the 
housewife's  advantage  to  buy  more  of  the  so-called  white  soaps, 
because  they  are  likely  to  contain  little  or  no  rosin,  which  is  used 
as  an  adulterant  to  weight  the  soap.  Rosin  does  produce  a  suds, 
and  for  that  reason  may  be  said  to  aid  in  the  cleaning ;  but  its  sticky 
quality  is  a  decided  hindrance  and  in  addition  it  is  in  the  nature  of 
an  adulteration  in  the  soap. 

Ammonia,  borax,  or  soda  in  the  form  of  washing  soda,  is  often 
added  to  the  home-made  soap  by  the  housewife  as  the  soap  is  form- 
ing, and  before  it  is  to  be  poured  into  molds.  For  scrubbing,  and 
for  general  heavy  work  where  brushes  and  mops  are  used,  this  soap 
has  an  advantage,  because  any  of  the  ingredients  mentioned  cut 
the  dirt.  Ammonia  and  borax  are  mild  alkalies  and  have  no  un- 
pleasant action  on  the  skin,  but  will  affect  delicate  colors.  Extra 
soda  in  a  scrubbing  soap  is  a  great  advantage  because  it  cuts  the 
grease.  It  is  an  advantage  in  purchasing  scrubbing  soaps,  provided 
it  is  not  bought  at  soap  price,  which  is  nearly  three  times  that  of 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  137 

Coloring  matter  in  laundry  soaps  acts  as  a  curtain  to  hide 
materials  that  are  false  constituents ;  white  soaps  are  to  be  preferred. 
The  toilet  soaps  are  often  colored  violet  or  rose,  for  example,  because 
the  soaps  are  scented  with  the  volatile  oils  from  these  flowers.  The 
cost  of  scented  and  colored  toilet  soaps  should  warrant  at  least  a 
good  clean  fat  and  a  fine  perfume.  Usually  such  a  soap  is  molded 
into  a  very  small  cake  and  its  cost  is  double  that  of  better  house- 
hold soaps,  which  are  equally  efficient  as  toilet  soaps. 

It  is  economical  to  buy  soap  in  large  quantities.  In  the  first 
place,  there  is  the  usual  grocery  saving  like  six  or  three  cakes  for  a 
quarter,  and  sometimes  a  larger  saving  in  larger  amounts.  There  is 
the  advantage,  too,  to  the  housewife  of  having  enough  soap  in  storage 
to  allow  time  for  it  to  dry  before  use.  Drying  soap  is  a  saving,  but 
it  fails  in  economy  if  the  soap  becomes  so  dry  that  it  does  not  lather 
quickly,  and  the  housewife's  lost  time  more  than  offsets  the  money 
saving.  In  small  families  where  soap  is  bought  in  box  quantities 
because  it  is  less  expensive,  and  where  it  is  not  used  up  so  quickly 
as  in  large  families,  it  is  wisest  not  to  unwrap  those  cakes  which 
are  to  be  used  last. 

All  scraps  of  soap  should  be  saved  for  use  in  dishwashing,  in  the 
clothes  boiler,  or  for  soap  solution  for  the  washing  machine.  Put 
these  scraps  into  a  jar,  with  water,  and  as  fast  as  the  soap  jelly  is 
used,  add  more  water  to  the  remaining  scraps  of  soap. 

Soap  Making. — The  two  things  necessary  to  make  soap  are  fat 
and  alkali.  Fat  may  be  obtained  in  the  kitchen  by  trying  out  meat 
trimmings  and  suet,  and  discarded  fat  from  deep  fat  frying,  and 
other  fats.  Store  in  a  cool  place  until  several  pounds  have 
accumulated.  Prepare  the  fat  by  melting,  a  raw  potato  cooked  with 
the  fat  will  help  to  clarify  it.  When  still  warm  strain  through 
cheesecloth.  The  alkali  is  sold  as  caustic  soda;  it  is  bought  in 
lump  form  at  the  drug  store  or  chemists'  supply  house,  or  lye  may  be 
bought  in  cans.  One  pound  of  this  soda  combines  with  7  pounds  of 
fat  to  make  soap. 

To  Prepare  the  Solution. — Dissolve  1  pound  caustic,  soda  in 
5  pints  of  water,  or  1  can  lye  in  1  quart  water. 

To  Make  the  Soap. — One  pound  clean  fat  warmed,  and  14  oz. 
(1%  cups)  soda  or  lye  solution.  Warm  the  fat  just  enough  to  melt 
it.  Stir  the  soda  solution  into  the  fat  until  the  mixture  becomes 
a  smooth  creamy  mass,  then  mold. 


138  HOUSEWIFERY 

To  Mold. — Line  an  enamel  pan  or  cardboard  box  with  waxed 
paper  cut  into  strips  the  width  of  the  box  (like  the  paper  in'  candy 
boxes).  Pour  the  soap  mixture  into  the  box  and  let  stand  until 
soap  is  well  formed  (M  hours).  Before  it  dries  remove  the  paper 
as  from  a  warm  cake  after  taking  from  the  oven. 

Soap  chips,  so-called,  may  be  purchased  from  all  soap  manu- 
facturing companies  and  from  laundry  supply  houses.  Most  of 
the  brands  may  be  purchased  in  ten-,  fifteen-,  or  twenty-five-pound 
packages  or  in  barrel  quantities.  One  pound  of  soap  chips  to  four 
gallons  of  water  makes  a  soap  solution  which  is  especially  suitable 
for  use  in  washing  machines.  One  has  used  enough  soap  solution 
when  the  suds  remain  and  a  scum  does  not  form  in  the  washing. 
The  greasy  or  more  soiled  clothes  will  need  more  soap.  Often 
two  cups  of  the  above  solution  to  a  seven-sheet  washer  is  enough. 

Soda. — In  the  same  place  where  soap  is  purchased  a  type  of 
powdered  washing  soda,  especially  suitable  for  laundry  purposes  can 
be  bought.  This  soda  is  sometimes  spoken  of  in  the  trade  as  "  acid 
alkali "  because  it  is  the  washing  soda  with  some  of  its  astringent 
caustic  properties  removed.  This  soda  makes  a  saving  in  the  soap 
bill,  because  its  cost  is  about  one-third  that  of  soap,  and  it  is  espe- 
cially serviceable  in  doing  laundry  work  where  the  water  is  very 
hard.  It  may  be  made  into  a  soap  solution  by  using  one  pound  of 
soap,  and  one  to  two  pounds  of  prepared  soda  to  every  four  gallons 
of  water.  The  saving  will  be  very  noticeable  if  the  measurement 
of  this  prepared  solution  is  compared  with  the  solution  without  soda, 
remembering  that  soap  enough  has  not  been  used  in  the  water  until 
a  lasting  suds  is  produced.  Warm  water  produces  more  suds  than 
cold. 

Soap  Powders. — Soap  powders  or  washing  powders  are  usually 
purchased  in  small  packages  from  the  grocery.  These  packages 
weigh  from  one  to  three  pounds.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  buy 
these  powders  in  barrel  quantities.  These  powders  are  much  used 
because,  like  soap  chips,  they  readily  dissolve,  forming  a  suds. 

Very  few  soap  powders  are  pure  soap.  The  proportion  of  soda 
varies,  but  its  presence  is  easily  tested  by  sprinkling  a  few  grains  in 
the  fire,  when  a  yellow  flame  characteristic  of  soda  will  appear; 
also,  watch  the  effect  on  the  skin,  for  a  parched  dry  skin  after 
washing  and  a  much  puckered  skin  during  washing  indicates  soda. 

A!  soap  powder  containing  soda  may  be  very  extravagant  if  one 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  139 

buys  it  at  soap  rates,  or  if  used  carelessly,  or  if  used  in  washing 
gold-decorated  china  or  fine  woolens  and  silks,  to  say  nothing  of 
colors,  all  of  which  will  probably  be  injured  by  it.  When  used, 
always  dissolve  in  the  wash  water;  never  use  except  for  white 
cottons  and  linens ;  never  boil  with  clothes.  Soda  yellows  silks  and 
wools  and  too  often  fades  colors. 

All  this  shows  why  it  is  much  better  to  buy  soda  as  soda  and 
soap  as  soap,  and  mix  or  use  the  two  known  supplies  when  and  as 
needed. 

Soap  bark  may  be  bought  in  laundry  supply  houses  or  in  drug 
stores;  it  will  be  much  cheaper  from  the  former  place.  It  keeps 
indefinitely,  and  as  it  is  to  be  used  in  quantities  of  one  cup  of  soap 
bark  to  one  quart  of  wash  water,  it  is  advisable  to  buy  it  in  large 
quantity,  at  least  two  or  three  pounds ;  it  weighs  light.  Its  special 
value  is  to  wash  dark  silks  and  cottons,  where  the  alkaline  reaction 
of  soap  may  do  harm  to  the  colors.  Do  not  use  for  white  or  light 
fabrics. 

Scourers  or  Cleaners. — Scourers  should  be  bought  after  con- 
sidering the  various  methods  of  cleaning,  the  different  utensils  and 
metals,  as  well  as  the  different  furnishings  about  the  house.  In 
this  way  one  will  be  sure  to  have  some  soaps,  some  pastes,  and  some 
abrasive  cleaners,  together  with  one  or  two  mixtures  which  may 
contain  enough  soda  to  be  special  cleaners  for  greasy  substances. 
Buy  these  packages,  cakes,  or  jars  of  scouring  material  in  small 
quantities  because  many  of  them  dry  or  deteriorate  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  The  small  discount  allowed  to  one  buying  such  supplies 
in  quantities  is  too  small  to  warrant  the  risk  of  much  waste. 
Workers  in  institutions  should  buy  in  larger,  wholesale  quantities. 

STARCH 

The  essentials  of  a  good  starch  are  that  it  shall  give  a  certain 
degree  of  stiffness  but  still  keep  the  fabric  pliable;  give  a  body 
which  is  as  lasting  as  possible  to  the  fabric;  resist  moisture,  and 
give  clearf  good  color  as  well  as  gloss  and  finish. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  starch,  as  well  as  several  substitutes 
which  are  especially  suited  for  the  laundry.  The  usual  starches  are 
cornstarch,  wheat  starch,  and  rice  starch.  Potato  starch  is  not 
desirable  as  it  absorbs  more  water  than  the  other  starches  when  in 
the  garment,  so  that  the  garment  will  not  wear  so  well. 


140  HOUSEWIFERY 

Cornstarch  is  a  fine  grain  starch  from  corn,  which  has  the  special 
power  of  making  a  starch  paste  which  resists  moisture.  It  makes  a 
fabric  stiff,  rough  and  brittle.  Cornstarch  is  better  adapted  to  the 
starching  of  cuffs  and  collars  than  to  the  finishing  of  a  baby  dress. 

Wheat  starch  makes  a  soft  pliable  fabric,  giving  a  smooth  finish 
and  a  good  gloss.  It  is  most  suitable  for  fine  lingerie. 

Corn  and  wheat  starch  combined  give  better  results  than  if  used 
singly.  For  this  mixture  use  two-thirds  to  one-third,  according  to 
the  stiffness  or  pliability  desired.  For  example :  for  shirt  bosoms,  col- 
lars, cuffs,  etc.,  use  two-thirds  cornstarch  and  one-third  wheat ;  while 
for  petticoats,  dresses,  etc.,  use  one-third  cornstarch  to  two-thirds 
wheat  starch.  Mixed  starches  blended  for  the  purpose  may  be  bought 
at  laundry  supply  houses  under  the  name  of  blended  or  modified. 

Rice  starch  is  used  most  often  for  fine  French  lingerie.  It  has 
a  very  small  grain  and  makes  starch  of  a  very  pliable  nature.  It 
may  be  "bought  in  packages,  or  may  be  obtained  by  using  the  water 
in  which  rice  is  cooked. 

Prepared  Starches. — A  specially  prepared  starch  may  be  bought 
at  the  laundry  supply  houses  in  household  quantities.  This  pre- 
pared starch  has  paraffin  and  borax  mixed  in  standard  proportions, 
so  that  with  a  standard  recipe,  using  twelve  ounces  of  starch  to  a 
gallon  of  water,  one  has  a  standard  quality  of  paste.  There  are 
laundry  and  hospital  supply  houses  in  all  large  cities,  from  which 
these  materials  may  be  secured  by  parcel  post.  It  is  of  especial 
advantage  if  one  is  attempting  to  do  any  of  this  work  as  a  business. 

Mourning  starch  is  purchasable  in  pound  packages,  and  is 
of  service  in  laundering  blacks  and  browns,  but  it  is  not  necessary, 
as  tea  used  with  ordinary  starch  serves  the  same  purpose. 

Color  tints  may  be  obtained  in  powdered  form  or  in  pastes 
such  as  are  used  for  coloring  candies  and  icings.  Some  dyes  may  be 
purchased  in  soap  form.  Various  shades  of  crepe  paper  will  bleed 
enough  color  in  a  quantity  of  water,  and  this  water  may  be  added 
to  the  rinse  water  or  to  starch  water.  Almost  any  shade  of  color  may 
be  obtained  by  combining  various  colors.  Blues  and  pinks  make 
violet,  and  brown  turns  pink  to  an  apricot  shade.  Boiling  the  gar- 
ment in  the  dye  usually  assures  the  fastness  of  the  dye. 

Starch  substitutes  are  of  great  value  in  taking  the  place  of 
starch  in  case  of  an  emergency,  or  for  doing  fine  lingerie  work  where 
the  penetrability  of  the  stiffening  agent  is  the  chief  requirement: 

Borax  is  usually  bought  in  powder  form.     Voiles  or  dimities 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  141 

and  any  sheer  material  like  fine  collars  and  jabots  appear  more 
like  new  material  if  rinsed  in  borax  water  instead  of  starch  water. 
Borax  is  a  bleach  and  if  only  a  part  of  a  garment  is  starched  with 
borax,  that  part  on  standing  will  whiten. 

Gum  arable  may  be  purchased  as  a  powder  or  in  lump  form. 
Either  will  dissolve  quickly  in  warm  water,  requiring  about  half 
as  much  time  for  the  powder  as  for  the  gum.  Gum  arabic  is  espe- 
cially useful  in  stiffening  silks  and  crepes.  It  gives  a  new-fabric 
appearance.  It  is  used  in  such  small  quantities  and  so  seldom, 
that  from  two  to  four  ounces  from  the  drug  store  will  be  ample. 
It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoonful  to  one  quart  of  water 
and  must  be  strained  before  using. 

Dextrine  is  a  gum.  It  is  starch  partially  digested  into  a  sugar 
and  so  is  neither  a  starch  nor  a  sugar.  If  one  has  gum  arabic  in  the 
house,  there  is  no  need  to  use  dextrine.  Some  especially  prepared 
starches  that  are  sold  for  fine  lingerie  are  dextrinized  starch.  This 
starch  makes  a  more  penetrating  stiffening. 

Bran  is  used  in  the  place  of  soap  for  washing  cretonnes  and 
colors  and,  like  grated  potato  put  in  the  water,  will  carry  some 
starch  with  it.  No  bran  is  absolutely  free  from  starch,  and  if  the 
garment  after  washing  is  rinsed  in  bran  water  instead  of  clear 
water,  it  will  take  up  some  starch,  enough  to  give  the  appearance 
of  a  new  fabric. 

BLUING 

After  rinsing  the  clothes  entirely  free  from  soap,  the  use  of  blue 
water  will  counteract  the  yellow  of  the  fibre  and  the  clothes  will 
become  whiter  than  without  its  use. 

A  good  blue  should  entirely  dissolve  in  water  and  should  contain 
no  iron. 

An  insoluble  blue  is  an  inconvenience  because  it  settles  on  the 
sides  and  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  may  even  settle  in  the  folds 
of  the  garment,  causing  streaks  and  spots  which  must  be  washed 
or  boiled  out.  It  is  also  an  unnecessary  expense  because  all  the 
bluing  bought  is  not  usable.  If  an  insoluble  blue  is  used,  the  water 
should  be  stirred  each  time  a  garment  is  put  in  so  as  to  keep  the 
particles  in  suspension,  otherwise  they  will  settle. 

Liquid  blues  are  easy  to  use  and  are  soluble,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  they  and  other  blues  do  not  contain  iron.  Clothes  that 
are  not  properly  rinsed  so  as  to  be  entirely  free  from  soap  before 


142  HOUSEWIFERY 

bluing  will  often  show,  upon  ironing,  streaks  or  spots  of  iron  rust. 
The  soda  or  potash  of  the  soap  has  combined  with  the  iron  of  the 
blue,  and  iron  rust  develops  on  ironing.  It  is  a  chemical  formation 
and  may  be  overcome  either  by  a  better  choice  of  blue,  or  by  thor- 
oughly rinsing  out  all  soap  before  bluing. 

To  test  a  bluing  for  iron,  put  a  teaspoonful  of  liquid  blue,  or 
shave  off  some  of  the  ball  or  block  blue,  into  a  tablespoonful  of  water 
and  to  this  add  a  strong  solution  of  soap  or  soda.  Heat  this  mix- 
ture, and  if  iron  is  present  the  bluing  will  change  to  a  reddish  brown. 

To  test  solubility,  put  a  few  grains  of  powdered  blue  in  water, 
shake  and  let  stand  to  dissolve.  Filter  through  filter  paper  or  fine 
cloth  and  if  soluble  no  residue  will  remain. 

Bluing  is  usually  bought  at  grocery  stores,  but  the  laundry 
supply  houses  have  the  greatest  variety  of  blues,  and  will  sell  in 
small  quantities  like  one  ounce. 

Aniline  blue  is  the  standard  blue  and  is  soluble  and  without  iron. 
It  is  very  strong,  not  being  diluted,  and  may  be  purchased  as  a  pow- 
der, ready  to  be  dissolved.  Put  one  ounce  of  powder  into  one  gallon 
of  warm  water  and  all  will  dissolve;  filter,  bottle  and  store  for  use. 
Of  this  solution,  use  one  teaspoon  for  an  ordinary  washtub  of  water. 
Aniline  blues  are  sold  by  number,  which  indicates  color,  blue  or 
violet,  and  whether  an  acid  is  needed  to  develop  the  color  or  not. 
For  household  purposes,  buy  the  blue  tint  and  the  kind  not  needing 
an  acid,  called  anti-sour. 

SEWING  SUPPLIES! 

So  little  time  is  used  in  being  forehanded  and  so  much  lost  when 
the  needed  article  is  not  at  hand.  This  is  true  with  regard  to  all 
supplies,  but  is  true  to  even  a  greater  extent  with  sewing  supplies. 
These  supplies  are  usually  of  standard  sizes  and  quantities  and  of 
permanent  quality;  so,  as  far  as  cost  is  concerned,  it  is  as  cheap 
to  buy  at  one  time  as  another,  and  certainly  a  needle  and  thread, 
or  a  hook  and  eye,  when  needed  is  most  urgently  needed  at  the 
moment. 

The  experienced  housekeeper  requires  little  help  in  this  econ- 
omy, but  those  younger  in  experience  may  be  grateful  for  a  suggestive 
list.  Why  not  buy  such  requisites  as  the  following  the  very  first  day 
one  goes  to  a  store,  and  then  certain  necessities  will  have  become 
comforts,  by  being  on  hand  when  needed? 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  143 

Thread: 

Spool  cotton,  white  and  black,  sizes  40-90. 
Spool  silk,  white,  O-A-B   (2  size  spools,  large  and  small). 
Spool  silk,  black,  O-A-B   (2  size  spools). 
Spool  silk,  light  blue,  A. 
Spool  silk,  light  pink,  A. 
Basting  cotton,  size  60. 
Heavy  linen  thread,  spool  or  skein. 
Darning  cotton,  black  and  white  mercerized. 
Needles  : 

Darning  needles,  sizes  3-9,  5-10.   (Separate  papers  of  one  size  may  be 

bought. ) 

'Sewing  needles,  sizes  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 
Large  sack  needle  or  heavy  darning  needle. 
Bodkin — tape  needle. 
Pins: 

Paper  or  box  of  pins  ( cheaper  by  the  box ;  %  Ib. ) . 

Two  sizes  are  convenient,  but  if  one  size  is  bought  choose  one  not 

too  large. 
Safety  pins,  three  sizes. 

Steel  or  nickel  plated.    The  steel  is  more  expensive  but  has  a  good 

needle  point. 
Hooks,  Eyes,  and  Peets: 

Black  and  white,  non-rusting,  sizes  1,  2,  3. 
Snappers : 

Black  and  white,  sizes  4/0,  3/0,  2/0,  1/0,  00. 
Measure : 

Tape  measure. 
Yard  stick. 

Neither  expensive;    the  tape  especially  good  for  sewing,  and  yard 

stick  for  accurate  measurements  about  the  house. 
Tapes : 

Cotton — two  or  three  rolls  of  cheap  cotton  tape  for  broom  bags,  hang- 
ing loops,  or  places  where  tapes  are  firmer  than  string. 
English  twilled — best  quality  for  bindings. 

Linen — special  bindings  fotf  shoe  bags,  for  sturdy  bindings  and  facings. 
Bias  Bindings — for  finishing; 

for  mending  or  replacing  in  tears. 
(Several  sizes— 2-8.) 
Ribbon  Binding — black  and  white. 
Used  for  rough  edges  of  seams. 
Most  useful  for  mending. 

Lingerie  Tape — for  drawstrings  in  underwear;   serviceable  and  wash- 
able; good  to  replace  the  broken  drawstring. 
Feather  Stitch  Binding — for  finishing  where  a  plain  bias  binding  could 

be  used. 
Belting — to  replace  shrunken  belts. 

(All  belting  shrinks  about  2  inches  to  the  yard.) 
Shoe  Lacers — black,  both  short  and  long. 

Color  to  match  usual  color  worn. 
Corset  Lacers — a  pair  of  short  ones. 
One   long  lace. 


144  HOUSEWIFERY 

Edging  : 

Narrow  embroidery  to  set  into  tiers,  2  widths. 

Narrow  lace  to  set  into  tiers,  2  widths. 

Coarse  net  for  foundation  for  darning  large  tears. 
Muslins : 

Batiste  or  lawn,  for  mending. 

Muslin,  light  weight,  for  mending. 

heavy,  for  mending. 
Emery  Ball: 

For  cleaning  needles. 
Wax: 

For  waxing  heavy  threads. 
Collar: 

Bones  or  wires — 3  sizes. 
Crochet  Needle: 

For  an  emergency  mend. 
Stiletto  : 

For  an  emergency  mend. 

HOUSEHOLD  PAPER  SUPPLIES 

Toilet  paper  should  have  a  smooth  surface  and  soft  texture. 
It  can  be  purchased  in  either  of  two  forms :  the  roll,  or  the  package 
of  sheets.  The  latter  is  more  economical  because  one  is  less  likely 
to  use  the  sheets  carelessly.  It  is  decidedly  economical  to  put  the 
package  into  a  patented  holder,  and  this  is  recommended  for  places 
where  the  use  of  such  paper  is  likely  to  be  extravagant,  or  where  it 
is  a  rather  large  item  of  expense. 

Tissue  paper  is  especially  useful  for  wrapping  dainty  or  fragile 
materials.  It  comes  about  fifteen  by  twenty-two  inches  in  size,  and 
is  sold  by  the  quire  or  one  hundred  sheets.  The  odd  pieces  that  come 
into  the  house  as  wrappings  should  be  saved,  for  they  make  excellent 
window  wipers.  Tissue  paper,  too,  is  always  valuable  for  packing, 
because  it  crushes  and  is  so  soft  and  light  that  it  makes  a  good 
padding  for  fragile  material. 

Paraffin  paper  is  a  light-weight  tissue  coated  with  paraffin 
which  is  useful  for  wrapping  foodstuffs.  It  may  be  purchased  in 
packages,  or  by  the  roll  of  about  twelve  yards.  If  it  is  used  very 
freely  in  the  home,  it  will  be  found  more  economical  to  buy  in 
pound  or  quire  lots  from  a  wholesale  paper  house. 

Paper  towels  are  sometimes  used  in  the  kitchen,  where  a  clean 
towel  is  needed  many  times  a  day.  This  paper  should  be  rough, 
really  a  blotting  paper,  so  that  it  will  absorb  water  readily.  The 
towels  are  purchased  in  rolls  of  7  yards  each. 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  145 

Paper  toweling  is  excellent  for  draining  foods  which  have  been 
fried  in  deep  fat.  For  greasing  cake  tins  and  molds,  the  paper 
toweling  is  far  preferable  to  the  piece  of  manila  paper  like  that 
from  a  paper  bag,  or  to  the  brush  which  must  be  cleaned  or  the  fat 
collected  on  it  would  grow  rancid. 

Tray. — The  tray  of  galvanized  iron  or  even  papier-mache  is  of 
untold  service  in  the  kitchen  and  dining-room.  In  the  absence  of 
a  tray-wagon  it  is  possible  to  carry  several  things  at  once.  The 
work-tray  makes  the  scrubbing  of  a  kitchen  table  less  necessary. 

Wrapping  paper  is  a  great  convenience  to  have  on  hand.  It  can 
be  purchased  either  in  sheets  by  the  quire,  or  on  rolls  as  one  sees  it 
used  in  stores.  For  economy's  sake,  save  clean  wrapping  papers 
that  come  into  the  house. 

WRITING  DESK  SUPPLIES 

Paper — business  size,  500  sheets  to  1  ream. 

Correspondence  size,  24  sheets  to  1  quire,  60-75  sheets  to  1  package 

(Formerly  sold  as  pound). 
Envelopes — business  size,  400  envelopes  to   1   ream  of  paper. 

Letter  size. 

1  pack  to  1  quire  paper. 

2  packs  to  1  package  of  paper. 
Post  cards. 

Correspondence  cards. 

Newspaper  wrappers. 

Letter  size  pad — cheap  paper. 

Small  memo  pad — for  notes.    A  decided  color  like  yellow  is  desirable  as  it 

catches  the  eye. 

Postage  stamps — of  various  denominations  including  special  delivery. 
Blotters — large  and  small. 
Printed   stickers — pad  for  Parcel  Post. 

Laundry  list  pad — for  those  who  send  clothes  out  to  a  laundry. 
Carbon  paper — to  copy  lists. 
Box  of  labels — not  too  small;   two  sizes. 
Pad  of  printed  household  labels. 
Elastic  bands. 
Glue. 
Paste. 

Key  tags;  trunk  tags. 
Mending  tape — for  music  or  books. 
Seal  ing-  wax. 
Ball  of  string. 
Ball  of  twine. 
Paper  clips. 
Thumb-tacks. 
Shears. 

10 


146 


HOUSEWIFERY 


TABLE  OF  HOUSEHOLD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

Linear  Measure: 

12  inches    =  1  foot  320  rods    —  1  mile 

3  feet         =1  yard  1760  yards  = 

5%  yards  =  1  rod 


mile 
5280  feet      =  1  mile 


Square  Measure: 

144  square  inches^  1  square  foot  160  square  rods  —  1  acre 

9  square  feet     —  1  square  yard  1  square  mile  —  1  section 

30%  sq.  yards     =:  1  square   rod  36  square  miles=:  1  townslii 


FIG.  93. — Every-day  kitchen  measures.    Courtesy  Bureau  of  Standards, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


Avoirdupois   Weight: 

27.3  grains        =  1  dram 

16     drams        =  1  ounce 

16     ounces       —  1  pound 


Liquid  Measure: 
4  gills 
2  pints 

—  1  pint 
—  1  quart 

Dry  Measure: 
2  pints 
8  quarts 

=  1  quart 
—  1  peck 

100     pounds  =  1  cwt. 
2000     pounds  =  1  ton 


4  quarts 
gals. 


—  1  gallon 

—  1  bbl. 


4  pecks  =  I  bushel 

105  dry  quarts  —  1  bbl.  (fruit,  vege- 
tables, etc.) 


HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES  147 

MISCELLANEOUS    HOUSEHOLD   MEASURES: 

4  saltspoonfuls  =  1  teaspoonful 

3  teaspoonfuls  —  1  tablespoonful 
16  tablespoonfuls  =  1  cupful 

2  gills  =  1  cupful 

2  cupfuls  —  1  pint 

1  cupful  =  8  fluid  ounces 
32  tablespoonfuls  =  1  lb.  butter 

2  cups  butter  =  1  lb. 

1  lb.  butter  =  40  butter  balls 

4  cups  flour  =•  I  lb. 

2  cups  sugar  =  1  lb. 

5  cups  coffee  —  1  lb. 

1  lb.  coffee  =  40  cups  of  liquid  coffee 

1%  cups  rice  =  1  lb. 

2%  cups  oatmeal  =  1  lb. 

2%  cups  cornmeal=  1  lb. 

1  cup  of  liquid  to  3  cups  flour  =  a  dough 

1  cup  of  liquid  to  2  cups  flour  =  a  thick  batter 

1  cup  of  liquid  to  1  cup  flour  =  a  thin  batter 

2  teaspoonfuls  soda  to   1  pint  sour  milk 
1  teaspoonful  soda  to  1  cup  molasses 

i/2   te^P«0^1fuJrseoa^  of  tartar  +  l  \  =2  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  practical  suggestions  for  economizing  soap  can  be  taught? 

2.  What  supplies  should  be  bought  in  quantities?     List. 

3.  List  such  supplies  as  may  produce  waste  if  bought  in  quantity. 

4.  Compare  prices  paid  by  one  housekeeper  and  by  yourself  and  find  reason 

for  differences. 

5.  Make  a  list  that  may  be  used  as  a  purchasing  list  for  cleaning  supplies 

in  the  home. 

6.  How  may  the  quality  of  soap  and  blue  be  tested  in  the  home? 

REFERENCES 

DONHAM,  AGNES,  MARKETING  AND  HOUSEWORK.     Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

PARLOA,  MARIA,  HOME  ECONOMICS.     Century  Co. 

SOUDER,  M.  ATTIE,  NOTIONS.     Ronald  Press  Co. 

U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS,  MATERIALS  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD.   Circular  No. 

70. 

U.  S.  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS,  SAFETY  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD.   Circular  No.  75. 
VANDERBILT,  SADIE  B.,  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  TESTS  FOR  THE  HOUSEWIFE. 

Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications,  Bulletin  No.  19. 


CHAPTER  VII 

HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 

IN  considering  furnishings,  it  is  helpful  to  begin  with  the 
appearance  of  the  empty  room,  for  the  room  when  furnished  is  like 
a  picture,  to  which  the  walls,  ceiling,  and  floor  serve  as  a  background. 
To  obtain  best  results  for  the  background,  utility,  beauty,  and 
economy  may  be  considered  together. 

In  planning  their  new  home,  the  young  couple  usually  have, 
as  their  ideal,  the  perfectly  furnished  house,  complete  in  all  its 
details.  Their  enthusiasm  and  desire  to  have  it  complete  often 
act  as  a  hindrance  to  the  best  results  by  causing  them  to  buy  hastily. 
With  a  limited  sum  to  spend,  their  tendency  will  be  to  buy  cheap 
furnishings  which  may  represent  bad  lines,  poor  construction,  and 
limited  wearing  power,  for  their  one  thought  is  to  furnish  the  house. 

Instead,  why  not  plan  to  buy  absolute  necessities  first,  made  of 
the  best  material,  constructed  so  that  they  are  easily  cleaned,  built 
according  to  approved  standards,  and  harmonizing  with  things  that 
may  be  bought  later  ?  As  one  lives  in  the  house,  sees  what  is  wanted, 
and  what  money  is  available  for  purchasing,  the  many  things  needed 
and  desired  may  be  added. 

It  seems  a  more  reasonable  standard,  moreover,  to  use  less  ex- 
pensive equipment  which  may  be  had  in  adequate  quantity,  which  is 
not  too  expensive  to  replace,  and  so  is  not  a  source  of  anxiety  to 
the  housewife.  It  is  a  poor  rule  for  living  to  have  material  things 
for  daily  use  that  are  so  precious  that  they  are  a  matter  of  concern. 
The  housewife  who  every  evening  rolls  up  her  solid  silver  and  takes 
it  upstairs  to  put  under  her  pillow  is  not  the  American  standard  for 
the  twentieth  century. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  dollars,  if  spent  most 
carefully,  may  buy  the  bare  necessities  for  a  small  plainly  furnished 
home,  of  kitchen,  dining-room,  one  bedroom,  and  bath.  Even  then, 
however,  only  necessities  are  possible. 

In  this  chapter  there  are  presented  in  turn  standards  for  various 
148 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  149 

items  of  household  furnishings,  beginning  with  parts  of  the  house 
itself  which  require  care  and  renewal,  such  as  walls  and  floors; 
then  treating  of  floor  coverings,  draperies,  furniture,  linens,  beds 
and  bedding,  silverware,  china  and  glassware. 

WALLS 

Walls  should  be  decorated  in  accordance  with  a  few  general 
rules :  in  the  first  place,  the  smaller  the  room,  the  plainer  the  paper 
or  covering  material.  Next,  for  economy  of  light,  the  color  should 
not  be  too  dark  (Fig.  94),  because  a  dark  color  absorbs  light,  and  one 
burns  more  light  in  order  to  have  a  brighter  room.  Yellows,  reds, 
or  pinks  are  best  on  dark  or  "  cold  "  rooms,  and  grays,  blues,  greens, 
or  lavenders  on  warm  sunny  rooms.  The  light  shades  and  dainty 
patterns  are  good  for  rooms  which  are  for  individual  use,  such  as 
bedrooms  and  dressing-rooms.  The  apparent  form  and  size  of 
rooms  may  be  somewhat  controlled  by  the  choice  of  tints  and 
colors  of  paper.  A  mirror  may  be  hung  to  reflect  the  room,  and  so 
make  it  appear  larger.  It  is  often  poor  wall  treatment  that  makes 
rooms  seem  like  boxes  divided  from  each  other. 

Wallpaper. — Wallpaper  should  be  like  mats  used  in  framing; 
it  should  serve  as  background  rather  than  itself  be  the  picture. 
Two-tone  papers  are  lighter,  and  often  reflect  more  light  and  life 
than  a  one-tone  paper ;  the  two-tone  effect  may  be  brought  about  by 
a  fine  line  of  a  lighter  or  contrasting  color.  Figures  and  stripes 
have  much  to  do  with  the  effect  of  a  room.  Stripes  heighten  ceil- 
ings, while  figures,  if  large  and  geometrical,  often  make  the  walls 
appear  close  and  hence  lessen  the  size  of  the  room.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  avoid  "  busy  "  papers — those  that  keep  the  occu- 
pant busy  working  out  squares  and  diamonds,  or  constantly  counting 
some  unit  of  design. 

Wallpapers  are  sold  in  double  and  single  rolls,  48  and  24  feet 
long  respectively.  For  a  nine-foot  wall,  the  double  roll  cuts  to  better 
advantage.  A  single  roll  cuts  to  better  advantage  on  an  eight-foot 
wall.  If  the  wall  height  is  a  few  inches  over  eight  feet,  the  double 
roll  is  better  economy.  Papers  with  small  figures,  like  any  other 
material,  cut  with  much  greater  economy  because  less  is  lost  in 
matehing  the  pattern. 


150 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Papers  may  be  classified  (Figs.  95  and  96)  with  approximate 
prices,  as  follows : 


Cartridge    $  .15  per  roll 

Oatmeal    30  per  roll 

Tile    30  per  roll 

Engraved    60  per  roll 


Crepe  $  .GO  per  roll 

Stipple     1.20  per  roll 

Pressed    3.00  per  roll 

Japanese 4.50  per  roll 


FIG.  94. — A  study  showing  the  absorption  of  light  by  wallpaper.      The  same  sized  room, 
the  same  sized  burner. 


To  Put  Wallpaper  On. — Recipe  for  paste: 

2  Ibs.  flour. 

Cold  water  to  make  thick  paste. 

14  Ib.  glue. 

Boiling  water  to  make  like  cream. 

Save  some  pieces  of  wallpaper  for  future  use  in  patching. 

Hard  Plaster  or  Cement  Walls. — In  rooms  like  the  cellar, 
laundry,  and  kitchen,  the  walls  are  best  finished  with  a  hard  finish 
which  can  be  produced  by  hard  plaster  or  cement.  In  either  case 
the  wall  may  be  tinted.  If  desired,  it  may  be  first  marked  off 
to  imitate  tile  or  bricks,  and  then  finished  in  enamel  paint. 


Cartridge 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 

Oatmeal  Tile 


151 


Engraved 


FIG.  95. — Samples  of  wallpaper. 
Crepe  Stipple 


Pressed 


FIG.  96.— Samples  of  wallpaper. 


152  HOUSEWIFERY 

Paint  and  Calcimine  Walls. — Ordinary  plaster,  such  as  is  most 
often  used,  can  be  finished  with  a  hard  surface  by  first  covering 
with  one  or  two  coatings  of  flat  house  paint,  and  then  applying  one 
or  two  coats  of  enamel  paint.  Naturally  the  more  coats  the  wall 
has,  the  more  impervious  to  moisture  it  is  and  the  more  easily 
cleaned. 

Calcimine  and  whitewash  finish  are  cheaper  at  first  cost,  but 
will  need  frequent  renewal,  as  both  rub  off  easily,  and  are  spotted 
with  water.  Good  painted  walls  may  be  renewed  by  washing 
with  soap  and  water. 

Oilcloth  or  enamel  cloth  may  be  used  for  wall  covering,  and 
if  well  pasted  it  makes  a  water-proof  finish  and  is  an  especially 
good  way  to  freshen  bathroom  and  kitchen  walls.  The  tile  effect 
possible  in  this  enamel  cloth  makes  an  attractive  wall  covering. 

Tile  and  Tile-like  Walls. — As  explained  above,  a  hard  plaster 
can  be  marked  off  to  imitate  tile,  and  this,  with  enamel  paint,  makes 
a  good  finish,  which  wears  well.  A  metal,  marked  like  tile,  may  be 
purchased  in  sheet  form,  and  put  over  old  plaster  that  is  still  firm, 
and  then  be  enamel  painted  to  give  a  good  finish.  This  gives  a 
most  satisfactory  wall  finish,  and  is  cheaper  than  porcelain  tile. 
Tile  wainscoting  for  five  feet  from  the  floor,  with  hard  plaster 
enamelled  for  walls  above  for  ceiling,  while  relatively  expensive, 
makes  an  impervious  wall  finish  most  suitable  for  any  room  where 
moisture,  odor,  or  grease  may  be  present.  This  finish  is  most 
easily  cleaned  and  is.  very  durable.  For  greater  ease  in  cleaning 
and  for  more  sanitary  walls,  a  curved  baseboard  of  tiling  is  usually 
set  in  before  the  wainscot  is  set.  Ornamented  tile  in  the  wall  finish 
rather  fails  in  the  purpose  of  the  use  of  the  tile,  for  it  is  hard  to 
clean,  and  naturally  less  sanitary. 

FLOORS 

Kinds  of  Woods. — The  following  woods  are  given  with  their 
advantages  and  disadvantages  for  use  as  floors.  Sometimes  one 
prefers  to  choose  a  wood  for  its  special  qualities,  but  more  often 
it  is  an  economical  advantage  to  use  a  wood  that  is  relatively  cheap 
in  the  local  market,  provided  it  meets  the  requirements  for 
serviceableness. 


Soft  woods: 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 
Advantages  Disadvantages 


153 


White  pine,     Moderate  price 

2nd  quality  Excellent  floor  for  carpets 
Soft  for  tacks 
Shrinks  little 
Lies  permanently  flat 


Contains  many  knots 
Unattractive  in  appearance 
Unsuited  for  staining 
Too  soft 
Knots  show  through 


Spruce 


Hard  woods: 

North  Caro- 
lina pine 


Cheap 

Nearly  free  from  knots 
White  and  agreeable  in  ap- 
pearance when  fresh 
Soft  for  tacks 
Takes  stain  well 


Cheap  as  spruce 

Can  be  kept  fairly  polished 

with  wax 
Possible     to     select     boards 

which  do  not  show  sapwood 


Boards  tend  to  curl  at  edges, 

forming  ridges 
Hastens   wearing   out   of 

carpet 
Splinters 
Stain  soon  wears  off 


Shows  sapwood,  which  injures 

appearance 
Does  not  take  carpet  tacks 


Georgia  Next   above  North   Carolina  Grain   monotonous   if   "rift 

pine  pine  in  hardness  and  cost         boards" 

Takes  good  polish  with  wax  If  of  slashed  boards,  apt  to 
Must  use  rift  boards  splinter 

Maple  Tough  Boards  acquire  bluish  tinge 

Whiteness   desirable   in  par-         at  ends 

quetry    or    oiled    floors   to    Not  often  used  for  entire 
make  the  pattern  floor  in  home 

Boards  must  be  cut  narrow — 
2y2"  or  2" 


Ash 


May  be  used  for  stairs  that    Unsuited  for  severe  wear 
are  to  be  covered,  and  for    Annual  rings   do  not  adhere, 
doors  and  door  frames 

May  make  a  good  floor  that 
is  to  be  covered 


and  floor  slivers  in  places 
where  wear  comes 


Birch  Very  hard 

Contains  white  sapwood  en- 
closing pink  heart 
Very  beautiful 


Limited  market 


Oak 


Best  for  floors 

Varied  and  agreeable  grain 

Does  not  sliver 


Liable   to   have   knots   which 

shrink  and  work  loose 
Much  waste  in  laying  a  floor 


154 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Fancy  woods  like  cherry,  mahogany,  beech,  walnut,  and  redwood 
are  used  only  where  one  may  pay  large  prices.  Cherry  often  is  used 
with  or  as  mahogany,  and  usually  takes  the  curved  or  bent  lines  of 
chair  backs  and  arms.  Mahogany  is  not  pliable  enough  to  form 
curves. 

The  mode  of  sawing  and  the  part  of  the  log  used  have  much  to 
do  with  the  wearing  qualities  of  wood,  especially  that  used  for 
floors.  The  young,  immature,  or  sapwood  is  usually  separated  from 
good  lumber,  as  it  is  soft  and  filled  with  much  organic  matter 


FIG.  97. — Mode  of  sawing  wood  produces  different  type  boards.      A,  cutting  a  log;   B, 
showing  layers.    From  Parloa's  Home  Economics,  Century  Co. 

that  easily  decays.  The  mature  or  heart  wood  is  a  darker,  harder 
wood,  with  a  very  close  grain ;  its  organic  material  is  in  such  small 
amounts  that  the  chance  for  decay  is  eliminated. 

This  heart  wood  is  sawed,  and  according  to  the  method  or  the 
place  from  which  the  boards  are  sawed,  we  have  first,  rift  or  comb, 
second,  slash  or  bastard  wood.  The  log  is  cut  according  to  the 
drawing  (Fig.  97).  In  this  way  one  or  two  broad  boards  are  cut — 
A-6t;  then  the  log  is  cut  and  cut  again,  giving  such  boards  as  c  and  e, 
which  will  have  the  long  annual  layers  or  rings  called  rift ;  d  will 
give  short  annual  rings  called  slash.  The  wood  is  all  cut  across 
the  grain  as  B  shows.  Slash  wood  slivers  and  so  is  bad  for  floors 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  155 

as  it  would  soon  splinter;  if  used,  it  should  be  covered.  The 
quartered  or  comb  grain  wood  gives  a  board  that  is  smooth  and  wears 
well.  Boards  shrink  in  width  and  depth,  but  rarely  in  length.  They 
should  be  thoroughly  dried  so  as  to  be  permanent  in  size  and  shape, 
and  so  prevent  the  chance  of  warping  and  forming  cracks. 

Floor  boards  are  usually  tongue  and  grooved,  or  "  matched  ;? 
lumber,  so  that  they  make  tight  joints,  and  if  well  seasoned,  will  be 
lasting.  Maple  is  most  used  for  floors  that  are  to  be  washed  much 
and  have  hard  wear  like  school  rooms.  Yellow  pine  or  resinous 
woods  resist  decay,  because  the  rosin  prevents  moisture  soaking 
into  the  wood.  Such  a  wood  makes  a  good  kitchen  or  laundry 
floor,  if  wood  is  to  be  chosen.  Wood  is  resilient,  but  unless  oiled 
or  covered  will  soak  moisture  and  grease.  For  the  work  quarters 
of  the  house  the  standard  should  be  to  have  the  floor  easily  cleaned, 
easy  of  tread,  and  non-absorbent  to  moisture  and  grease. 

For  the  recreation  and  rest  part  of  the  house,  wood  flooring  is 
most  commonly  used,  and  this  plain  laid  wooden  floor  or  the  pine, 
maple,  or  oak  may  be  stained  or  made  into  a  pattern,  or  a  so-called 
parquetry  floor.  Any  of  the  woods  may  be  oiled,  waxed,  or  varnished, 
with  or  without  a  stain. 

Waxed,  Oiled,  or  Varnished  Wood. — A  wooden  floor  is  the 
least  expensive,  hence  most  often  found,  in  a  house.  A  wooden 
floor  may  be  oiled  with  warmed  parafnne  or  linseed  oil.  The 
warmed  oil  will  penetrate  the  wood  and  oil  it  so  thoroughly  that 
future  grease  spots  are  less  likely  to  be  made. 

Oil  and  color  together  may  be  applied  by  a  color  dye.  Whether 
plain  oil  or  oil  stain  is  used  the  object  is  to  get  the  oil  into  the  wood. 
The  first  coat  will  probably  all  go  in  so  that  in  a  few  hours  there 
will  be  almost  nothing  to  wipe  off.  Several  coats  of  oil  on  the 
stained  floor  will  give  a  good  finish,  each  coat  making  the  floor 
darker  than  the  first.  Oiled  hard-wood  floors  give  good  service 
with  the  exception  of  the  care  needed  to  keep  them  clean.  Use 
light  oils,  like  lemon  or  paraffin,  very  thin,  and  rub  off  every  bit 
that  has  not  been  absorbed  before  it  has  had  time  to  gather  dust. 

A  varnished  or  shellaced  floor  is  very  glossy  and  unless  the  var- 
nish is  of  excellent  quality  (free  from  rosin)  and  put  on  in  thin 
layers,  the  service  life  is  very  short. 

Waxed  floors  are  most  satisfactory  for  living  rooms  and  general 
rest  and  recreation  quarters  so  far  as  appearance  is  concerned,  but 


156  HOUSEWIFERY 

waxed  floors  must  have  care.  Water  leaves  a  dark  spot  on  a  waxed 
floor,  and  oil  causes  it  to  grow  sticky.  The  best  care  is  to  keep  it 
free  from  dust  and  water,  and  to  rub  it  with  a  heavy  polishing 
brush,  usually  weighted.  Such  a  brush  may  be  bought  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  or  sometimes  carpet  is  fastened  to  the  feet  and  the  feet  scuffled 
over  the  floor.  The  weight  of  the  body  increases  the  ease  of  pro- 
ducing the  polish.  (See  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Kenovation, 
page  292.) 

Whatever  the  floor,  be  sure  to  have  it  very  smooth  so  that  it 


FIG.  98. — Types  of  flooring.  1,  Interlocking  rubber;  2,  parquetry  floor;  3,  tile;  4,  asbes- 
tolith;  5,  colored  tiles  for  borders;  6,  marbleloid  with  sanitary  base;  7,  linoleums;  8,  terrazio; 
9,  dreadnaught. 

will  be  easily  cleaned.  Curved  baseboards  in  the  tile,  or  special 
mouldings  set  in  as  a  joining  between  walls  and  floors  (Fig.  98), 
make  a  room  not  only  easily  cleaned,  but  more  likely  to  prohibit 
vermin.  Types  of  floorings  are  shown  in  Fig.  98. 

Tile  or  Composition  Floors. — Tile  makes  the  most  sanitary 
floor,  but  unfortunately  not  the  easiest  of  tread,  for  it  lacks  resil- 
iency. A  floor  which  is  easy  of  tread  is  said  to  have  resiliency,  i.e., 
it  gives  the  walker  an  impetus  forward — as  linoleum,  cork  carpet, 
interlocking  rubber,  or  some  of  the  composition  floors  which  are 
spread  with  a  trowel  or  laid  in  sections.  These  floors  often  repre- 
sent tile,  and  may  be  bought  in  different  colors  and  patterns.  Curved 
baseboards  are  possible  with  all  these  floors. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  157 

Actual  tile,  if  used,  is  most  suitable  for  laundry,  kitchen,  and 
bathroom  floors.  Small  many-sided  tile  usually  gives  the  best  ser- 
vice as  there  are  more  edges  for  contact  with  the  adjoining  tile  and 
hence  greater  adhesion.  Eound  and  square  tile  are  more  likely  to 
loosen,  and  the  tile  with  a  large  surface  is  less  likely  to  withstand 
heavy  wear,  as,  for  example,  in  delivery  entries  where  trucking 
and  delivery  of  heavy  barrels  and  boxes  are  factors. 

Heavy  rough  tiles  like  vitrified  bricks  are  often  well  chosen  for 
porch  floors  and  vestibules.  They  present  a  sturdy  "  outdoor " 
atmosphere  and  their  rough  finish  adds  to  their  attractiveness. 

Linoleum. — Linoleum  is  a  material  of  cork  composition  which 
may  be  purchased  at  a  great  range  of  prices  and  in  a  correspondingly 
great  variety  of  quality.  A  thin  linoleum  called  oilcloth  is  the 
cheapest  quality.  The  pattern  is  put  on  like  a  stencil,  stamped  on 
the  surface,  and  naturally  the  wear  soon  causes  the  pattern  to  rub 
off,  leaving  only  the  cloth  foundation.  Yarnish  will  help  keep  this 
cloth  in  good  condition,  but  only  in  a  small  degree.  Such  linoleum 
would  need  at  least  three  coats  of  varnish  in  a  year. 

The  linoleum  that  has  the  pattern  and  color  all  through  its 
depth  is  built  up  in  blocks  and  pressed  together.  Naturally  the 
color  lasts  as  long  as  the  linoleum  lasts.  These  come  in  medium 
standard  grades,  and  also  in  heavier  grades  known  as  "  cork  carpet " 
which  is  cork  color,  and  "  battleship  linoleum  "  which  is  usually  a 
plain  dark  brown.  These  two  heavier  grades  cost  more  than  stand- 
ard weight  linoleum,  and  this  cost  may  be  unnecessary  for  the 
lighter  service  of  the  small  house;  they  are  used  in  institutions 
where  the  wear  is  heavy. 

The  laying  of  a  linoleum  is  almost  more  important  than  the 
difference  in  quality  of  the  middle  grades  (Fig.  99).  It  should 
be  most  carefully  measured  and  cut  to  fit  the  floor.  Two  weeks  lying 
on  the  floor  without  tacking  will  give  it  time  to  stretch,  and  then 
it  may  be  refitted  and  fastened  down.  The  strips  of  linoleum  are 
sealed  together  with  a  sealing  cement,  and  the  edges  are  sealed  to 
the  baseboard.  Usually  this  is  all  that  is  done ;  but  the  housewife 
would  find  that  the  small  extra  cost,  15  to  25  cents  per  square  yard, 
of  having  the  whole  piece  of  linoleum  entirely  sealed  to  the  floor, 
would  mean  securing  an  almost  permanent  floor.  The  object  of 
sealing  is  that  no  water  can  possibly  get  to  the  underside  of  the 
linoleum  to  water-soak  it,  causing  it  to  swell  and  buckle.  Linoleum, 
after  it  is  laid,'  may  be  waxed  like  a  wooden  floor,  and  then  the 


158  HOUSEWIFERY 

pores  will  be  closed,  making  it  resist  water.  Medium-priced  lino- 
leum, waxed,  and  sealed  to  the  floor,  will  give  excellent  service  and 
has  resiliency  to  give  comfort  to  the  worker.  It  makes  the  most 
satisfactory  kitchen  floor. 

Kitchen  Floors. — The  kitchen  floor  should  be  easy  of  tread 
and  impervious  to  moisture  and  grease.  The  materials  most  im- 
pervious to  moisture  and  grease  are  not  always  resilient  or  easy  for 
the  worker's  feet. 

Such  a  floor  as  seems  easiest  for  the  worker  may  be  obtained 
by  using  yellow  pine  or  oak  which  is  oiled  for  a  finish ;  white  pine 
or  spruce  covered  with  linoleum  in  its  various  forms;  or1  some  of 
the  composition  materials  which  are  soft  enough  to  have  spring 
and  still  be  close  grained  enough  to  resist  soil  as  well  as  moisture 
and  grease.  These  latter  floors  are  spread  on  top  of  a  board  floor, 
and,  if  well  chosen,  this  is  one  way  to  make  over  an  old  floor  which 
may  still  be  good  enough  to  serve  as  a  foundation. 

If  wood  is  used,  it  should  be  hard,  close  grained  and  closely 
laid.  If  an^  old  floor,  it  should  be  planed  smooth,,  as  splinters  are 
dangerous  and  a  hindrance  in  any  cleaning  process.  In  old  houses 
where  the  wood  is  so  hard  that  planing  is  hard  work  and  conse- 
quently expensive,  it  will  be  cheaper  to  make  it  as  level  as  possible 
by  planing  a  bit  here  and  there  and  then  covering  the  whole  with 
medium]  quality  linoleum.  (See  page  157.) 

Oiling  a  wooden  floor  makes  it  less  likely  to  sihow  grease  spots. 
Often,  in  order  to  cover  old  spots,  an  oil  stain,  siucri  as  may  be  pur- 
chased, or  a  potassium  permanganate  dye  (page  281)  may  be  put 
on  over  the  floor.  Apply  with  a  paint  brush.  Either  will  sink 
into  the  wood  and  be  lasting  in  proportion  as  the  wood  is  hard 
or  soft — a  soft  wood  soaks  much  more  easily  and  thoroughly  than 
a  hardwood. 

To  oil — use  a  warmed  linseed  oil  and  apply  with  a  paint  brush. 
Allow  the  oil  time  to  soak  into  the  wood  and  finally  wipe  off 
the  oil  that  remains  on  the  surface.  If  this  is  not  done  the  floor 
will  be  slippery  and  will  soon  hold  so  much  dust  that  the  whole 
will  be  gummy  with  dirt. 

A  waxed  floor  is  not  so  satisfactory  for  a  kitchen  floor,  espe- 
cially if  much  cooking  is  to  be  done.  -Waxed  floors  cannot  be  wet  or 
washed,  and  for  that  reason  seem  lesis  suitable  for  the  kitchen. 
Every  housewife  feels  that  it  is  necessary  to  wash,  the  kitchen  floor 


HOUSEHOLD   FURNISHINGS 


159 


at  times  because  of  chance  grease  spots  and  soil.     (See  waxed  floors, 
page  155.) 

A  varnished  floor  would  give  greater  satisfaction  than  the  waxed 
floor,  but  neither  will  give  the  service  of  an  oiled  floor  or  a  floor 
covered  with  linoleum. 


v/iu 


WOOD 


FIG.  99. — Proper  wall  attachment  for  linoleum  floor  covering. 

Rugs  and  Carpets. — These  differ  from  each  other  only  in  size, 
because  the  material  is  the  same.  The  study  of  sanitation  and 
efficiency  has  made  a  carpet  unusual  in  the  average  home,  since  rugs 
are  much  more  easily  cleaned  and  handled.  Carpets  have  been 
out  up  into  small  squares  called  druggets,  or  have  been  stripped 
into  rugs  in  about  the  reverse  proportion  that  housekeepers*  used  to 
buy  strips  of  carpeting  and  sew  them  together  into  carpets.  Some 
ingrain  and  brussels  carpets  have  been  stripped,  fringed,  and  re- 
woven  like  rag  rugs,  except  that  the  nap  in  weaving  has  been  forced 
up.  All  this  has  been  by  way  of  getting  rugs  into  the  house  to 
replace  carpets. 

The  essential  economic  requirements  of  a  floor  covering  are 
that  it  be  durable,  easily  cleaned,  and  substantial  enough  to  lie 
flat  on  the  floor.  The  artistic  requirements  are  good  color  and 
pattern  and  that  the  rug  harmonize  with  the  room.  The  rug  should 
be  the  foundation  of  the  room,  and  the  color  and  pattern  may  be 
said  to  contribute  to  a  harmonious  whole  when  neither  are  so  pro- 
nounced as  to  be  the  all-controlling  factor  in  the  design  of  the 
room.  Types  of  rugs  are  shown  on  pages  159—165. 

As  to  the  size  of  a  single  rug  for  a  room,  a  good  general  rule 


160  HOUSEWIFERY 

to  use  for  measuring  is  that  the  rug  come  up  well  to  the  fireplace, 
if  there  is  one,  and  that  the  margin  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  be 
equal.  A  rug  9  x  12  feet  looks  best  with  a  floor  margin  12  to  15 
inches,  and  a  larger  rug  better  with  an  18-inch  margin.  If  several 
small  rugs  are  to  be  used,  in  various  sizes,  and  arranged  about  the 
room  to  cover  the  main  unit  spaces,  the  lines  of  the  rugs  will 
usually  best  follow  the  lines  of  the  room. 


'      CLOTH  WEAV£  OF  WGff/M  CM/Zr 


Bfit/SSfLS  CAftPET 
W/LTOAf  /S  A  Car  BfWSSELS 


AM/NSTEF?   CAftPET  WEAYE 

Fio.  101. — Diagram  showing  weaves  of  the  different  types  of  carpeting.    1,  Cloth  weave 
of  Ingrain  carpet;  2,  Brussels  carpet  (Wilton  is  a  cut  Brussels);  3,  Axminster  carpet  weave. 

Rugs  are  classified  according  to  the  weave,  as  ingrain,  pile,  and 
tufted. 

Ingrain  (Fig.  101  (1))  is  woven  cloth  fashion,  with  a  warp 
and  woof,  and,  like  cloth,  is  reversible  both  as  to  finish  and  colors : 
that  is,  it  may  be  used  either  side  up. 

Pile  carpeting  includes  Brussels  and  Wiltons. 

Brussels  (Fig.  101  (2) )  has  only  one  usable  side.  It  has  a  pile 
like  velvet,  but  the  pile  is  uncut.  Its  weave  is  like  Wilton ;  that  is, 
it  consists  of  a  locked  stitch  in  which  one  thread  is  woven  over 
the  next,  thereby  locking  and  holding  better.  The  woolen  thread 
which  constitutes  the  pile  is  looped  in  the  warp,  and  held  in  loops 
during  the  weaving  by  stretched  wires.  When  the  fabric  is  about 
to  be  finished,  the  wires  are  drawn  out,  and  the  loops  thus  left 
constitute  the  pile.  Brussels  is  only  a  middle  grade  carpet,  both 
as  to  looks  and  to  wear.  But  "body  brussels"  is  better  than 
"  tapestry  brussels,"  as  the  latter  has  much  sizing  and  would  have 
to  be  drv-cleaned  rather  than  steam-cleaned. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


161 


Wilton  is  a  heavy,  more  velvety,,  and  more  durable  carpet  or  rug 
than  Brussels.  It  is  made  with  a  pile  like  Brussels,  but  the  pile 
is  cut  when  it  is  finished  and  steamed,  whereupon  it  appears  like 
velvet.  Wilton  is  especially  good  for  living  rooms;  lay  it  with  the 
pile  against  the  light  as  with  Oriental  rugs.  French  Wiltons  have 
cotton  backs,  and  are  usually  woven  in  Oriental  colors  and  patterns. 
Royal  Wilton  is  a  trade  name  for  a  cheaper  quality.  Wilton  Velvet 
is  a  cheaper-grade  rug,  which  is  better  in  figures  than  in  plain 
colors.  Hartford  Saxony  is  a  Wilton  with  a  longer  nap,  but  not  so 
serviceable,  because  the  nap  may  be  pulled  out.  Saxony  is  best  in 
Chinese  patterns;  there  is  only  one  grade.  Because  Wiltons  are  so 
closely  woven,  they  hold  dust  on  their  surface.  For  limited  incomes 
the  French  Wilton  is  the  best,  as  it  gives  the  longest  and  most 
satisfactory  service. 

Tufted. — The.  third  kind  of  carpeting  is  the  tufted  kind.  It  is 
of  the  nature  of  the  old-fashioned  hooked  rugs,  where  the  filling  is 
woven  in  in  tufts.  This  group  includes  Axminster,  Chenille, 
Oriental  rugs,  and  carpets. 

Axminster  (Fig.  101  (3))  is  cheaper  than  a  Wilton  and  less 
serviceable,  as  the  tufts  easily  loosen.  Much  lint  comes  from  the 
rug.  Cotton  Axminster  is  not  reversible. 

Chenille  is  of  the  tufted  type,  and  is  like  Axminster  in  appear- 
ance and  like  Wilton  in  weave.  It  is  the  most  expensive  of  domestic 
or  European  carpeting.  It  is  more  like  an  Oriental  rug  but  not  so 
adapted  to  hard  wear,  although  it  is  often  used  to  save  costly 
Orientals.  The  cost  of  Chenille  is  determined  by  the  depth  of  the 
pile  and  richness  of  color.  Cotton  Chenilles  are  reversible  and  wash- 
able, and  are  used  for  bathrooms. 

Oriental  rugs  are  hand-tufted,  made  by  stretching  the  warp 
thread  in  a  frame,  and  then  looping  in  short  or  long  lengths  of  wool 
filling  (Fig.  102).  Before  finishing,  the  rugs  are  sheared  to  make 
the  filling  even.  For  tufted  rugs,  the  most  economical  from  the 
cleaning  point  of  view  are  those  that  are  sheared  so  the  threads  are 
not  too  long  (Figs.  103, 104) . 

Hemp  and  Grass  Rugs. — Various  kinds  of  hemp  and  grass 
rugs,  woven  or  braided,  are  much  used  for  living  rooms,  sun  parlors, 
and  on  porches.  Because  they  are  light,  cool  looking,  and  easily 
lifted  to  be  cleaned,  they  are  much  used  for  summer  homes,  and 
where  the  income  demands  something  inexpensive. 
11 


162 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Rag  Rugs. — Two  other  types  of  rugs  arc  made  by  braiding 
strips  of  cloth  and  sewing  the  braided  strips  together,  or  by  weaving 
strips  of  cloth  as  a  woof  in  the  warp  thread  Denims  and  cretonnes 
are  most  effective  for  this  work.  Either  of  these  materials,  or  strips 
of  ticking  or  silk,  may  be  hooked  into  burlap  or  crocheted  into  rugs. 
ABC 


FIG.  102. — Diagram  of  Oriental  rug  weave.  A,  Persian — knots — right  twist;  B,  Persian 
— knots — left  twist;  C,  Turkish — knots — center  twist.  Courtesy  of  Country  Life  in  America. 

Other  rug  materials  (Fig.  105),  such  as  flax,  jute,  and  wicking, 
are  also  used  to  produce  variety  and  various  degrees  of  cheaper  rugs. 

Comparative  values  of  rugs  and  carpets  are  shown  by  the 
following  table,  though  of  course  prices  may  vary  greatly. 


Kind 

Carpet 

Price 

Rug 

Price 

Flax  grass 

Width 

3x6  ft 

$1  56 

lictg    WOV6I1 

3x6  ft. 

$1  50-9.00 

Rag,  braided,  oval  .  .  . 
Ingrain,  plain  wool.  .  . 
figured  

i  'yd! 
1  yd. 

$1.45 
1.60 

4x7  ft. 

$7.75 

Body  Brussels 

1  vd 

300 

400 

Wilton 

1  yd 

3-5  00 

3x5}4  ft. 

2000 

Hartford  Saxony 

1  yd. 

6-8.00 

3x534  ft. 

20.00 

Axminster  
Chenille,  linen  back  .  . 

l  yd. 
1  yd. 

2-4.00 
8.95 

3x5M  ft. 

7.50 

wool  back  

only  wide 
widths 

14.00 

3x5  Y±  ft. 

44.00 

NOTE — Oriental  not  usually  made  in  standard  sizes;   prices  range  from 
$25  for  a  very  small  one  to  $3,000  and  $4,000  for  larger  ones. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


163 


Property  of  Mr.  J.  M.  Stanton,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

FIG.  103. — Bokhara  camel  bag  half.      Size  4'  X  2'10'. 


164 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Propeity  of  Mr.  A.  U   Dilley. 


FIG.  104. — Hamadan  rug. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


165 


DRAPERIES  AND  CURTAINS 

Draperies  introduce  warmth,  cheer,  and  a  contrasting  touch  of 
color  into  a  room,  and  are  often  used  to  shield  or  close  a  room, 
door,  or  window.  The  heavy  velours,  plushes,  velvets,  and  brocades 
furnish  soft  folds  which  give  artistic  effects  of  light  and  shadow; 
hut  they  are  high  priced,  hard  to  keep  free  from  dust,  and  expensive 


Klearflax. 


Rag. 


Coco  matting. 


FIG.  105. — Cloth  woven,  heavy  rugs,  inexpensive. 

to  clean.  They  need  to  be  lined  with  a  soft  fabric  of  harmonizing 
color,  as  their  backs  are  usually  cotton  and  not  attractive.  The 
two  thicknesses  of  material,  however,  which  have  different  possi- 
bilities of  cleaning,  add  to  the  cost  of  renewal  and  often  keep  the 
curtains  from  being  as  clean  as  they  should. 

The  universal  attention  to  economy  and  sanitation  has  resulted 
in  a  supply  of  suitable  and  artistic  draperies  which  are  washable, 


166 


HOUSEWIFERY 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


167 


non-fading,  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  resist  dust.  Cretonnes 
(Fig.  106),  denims,  sunfast  (Fig.  107),  and  various  silk  and  wool 
fabrics  meet  this  requirement.  Often  a  plain  or  solid  color  as  a 
lining  introduces  a  richness  of  tone,  provided  it  harmonizes  with 
the  drapery  material,  and  furnishes  a  lining  which  increases  the 
weight  and  excludes  the  light. 


FIG.  107.— Sunfast  fabrics— serviceable  because  of  fast  colors. 

If  strict  economy  must  be  practised,  select  a  pattern  that  repeats 
,^o  often  as  to  prevent  much  waste  in  cutting  lengths  and  matching 
patterns.  Tips  and  downs,  and  rights  and  lefts,  in  patterns  cut  to 
poor  advantage,  as  do  large  patterns  which  spread  over  large  space 
before  repeating.  Usually  plain  hangings  are  best  (Fig.  108),  but 
if  rugs  and  paper  are  plain,  a  figured  hanging  introduces  light  and 
contrast. 

Dining-room  and  bedroom  draperies  should  be  washable  and 
light  weight  so  as  to  be  easily  shaken  and  aired.  This  is  necessary 


168 


HOUSEWIFERY 


for  rooms  that  play  such  a  direct  part  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 
The  range  of  material  used  is  very  extensive,  including,  in  the 
order  of  cost,  the  following : 

Drapery  Materials  Per  yard 

Cotton    fabrics,    like    crash    $  .35 

Sunfast 75  to  $1.00 

Cretonnes     25  to     1.50 

Linen    40  to       .65 

Poplins,  monks'  cloth 50  to     1.50 

Denims 45  to       .75 

Velours     3.00  to     6.00 

Velvets    and    plushes     3.00  to     5.00 

Curtains. — 'Curtains  have  gone  through  the  same  changes  as 
the  heavy  draperies.  They  are  shorter,  lighter  in  weight  and  pattern, 
and,  if -the  housekeeper  desires,  she  can  find  filmy  pretty  patterns 
which  will  shield  the  room  from  the  passerby,  but  will  not  "  bar  " 
the  window  and  shut  out  the  light,  sun,  and  air.  Most  of  these 
materials  (Fig.  109)  are  easily  renewed  by  washing  in  the  home, 
and  the  cost  of  renewal  either  in  time  or  money  is  not  so  great  but 
that  the  curtains  may  be  fresh  and  crisp.  The  housekeeper  will  often 
find  suitable  for  curtain  use  dress  materials  like  voiles,  crepe,  or 
dotted  swiss  that  are  of  finer  weave  and  prove  much  cheaper  than 
the  regular  curtain  materials  which  are  sold  at  the  drapery  counter. 
About  one-half  inch  to  one  inch  should  be  allowed  on  each  yard 
of  washable  material  for  shrinkage.  Braid  or  gimp  shrinks  even 
more,  so  should  be  put  on  full  enough  to  allow  for  this.  If  one  has 
good  facilities  for  laundering  the  material,  it  would  be  most  practical 
to  shrink  the  whole  piece  before  cutting  into  curtain  lengths.  Be- 
sides allowing  for  shrinkage,  if  the  material  has  an  up  and  down  or 
a  large  pattern,  enough  must  be  purchased  to  allow  for  matching 
designs. 

The  following  relative  prices  may  be  of  service  in  considering  the 
cost  of  draping  the  windows : 


Curtain  Materials 

Width 

Price  per  yard 

Cheese  cloth                   

36  in. 

$0.10  to  $0.20 

Dimities  and  lawns  
Scrim,  voile,  marquisette,  swiss  .  .  . 
Organdy,  Brussels  net,  filet  

27-32  in. 
36-45  in. 
45-54  in. 

.20  to      .75 
.20  to      .55 
.45  to    1.00 

FIG,  108, — Cotton  draperies  and  upholsteries.    A,  Burlap;  B,  Monk's  cloth. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  169 

Hangers  for  Draperies  and  Curtains. — Wooden  poles,  braes 
rods,  and  wooden  cornices  support  the  curtains  and  draperies. 
Wiooden  poles  are  cut  to  fit,  but  for  small  windows  the  brass  rods 
may  be  the  adjustable  extension  type.  This  is  not  good  if  the  length 
of  the  rod  is  over  three  feet  as  the  weight  of  material  will  cause 
a  long  rod  to  sag.  In  this  case  have  a  solid  metal  rod  cut  the  proper 
length ;  this  may  be  either  a  brass  rod,  or  a  less  expensive  metal  rod 
with  a  brass  covering. 

Wooden  rods,  12  cents  per  foot;  ends,  30  cents  per  pair. 

Brass  rods,  28  cents-75  cents  per  foot;  ends,  50  cents  per  pair. 

G-oose  neck  rods,  40  cents  per  pair,  single;  60  cents  per  pair, 
double. 

Wooden  rings,  50  cents  per  dozen. 

For  portieres  and  curtains  that  are  to  be  drawn  often,  as  in 
closing  an  archway  or  in  drawing  heavier  curtains  in  the  place  of 
using  window  shades,  one  will  find  that  a  double  cord  and  pulley 
fixture  makes  the  drawing  of  the  curtain  most  easy.  Its  cost  for 
a  five-foot  window  is  about  $3.25. 

Window  Shades. — .While  the  window  shades  are  bought  solely 
for  protection  from  the  outside,  and  to  shade  the  inside  from  light, 
it  will  be  a  great  saving  to  pay  more  at  the  beginning  for  a  good 
linen  one  rather  than  buy  a  cheap  starched  cotton  one.  A  "  Hol- 
land "  shade  means  a  linen  shade  which  can  be  sponged  oil  with 
soapy  water  and  wiped  dry.  The  cheaper  filled  or  starched  shades 
will  crack,  and,  if  sponged,  must  be  handled  most  carefully.  There 
are  also  shades  made  in  two  colors,  dark  on  one  side  and  light  on  the 
other.  The  average  width  of  shades  is  thirty-eight  inches,  and  the 
cost  is  by  the  yard ;  it  is  also  governed  by  the  color.  Comparative 
prices  of  a  shade  thirty-eight  inches  wide  by  two  and  a  quarter 
yards  long  in  various  materials  are  as  follows :  linen  (green),  $2.75 ; 
Holland  (green),  $3.00;  two-color  shades,  $2.25. 

Window  Screens  for  Flies. — Copper  screen  is  best,  but  very 
expensive;  galvanized  is  next  best,  ungalvanized  will  rust  out  very 
quickly.  Cotton  netting  of  smallest  mesh — 14  threads  to  the  inch — « 
will  serve  well,  but  lasts  only  one  season ;  use  black  netting.  Screen 
the  fireplace  also. 

Window  Ventilators. — These  help  so  much  in  keeping  a  room 
in  good  condition  that  every  housekeeper  should  find  out  which  one 
suits  her  needs  best.  A  board  about  four  inches  wide  and  as  long 
as  the  window,  is  possible  for  everyone.  It  is  set  in  the 


170  HOUSEWIFERY 

window  frame,  and  the  lower  sash  is  brought  down  to  meet  it,  thus 
causing  a  displacement  of  the  sashes  in  the  middle  so  that  fresh 
air  creeps  in  so  gradually  as  to  cause  no  one  annoyance  from  drafts. 
Various  patented  ventilators  are  sold,  and  many  have  special  advan- 
tages. One  is  made  .of  cloth  put  on  an  extension  frame  like  a 
fly  screen,  which  niters  the  air;  another  is  of  glass,  which  may  be 
set  at  two  different  angles  from  the  window,  and  has  the  advantage 
of  not  shutting  off  the  view.  Other  metal  ones  have  slides,  or  flue- 
like  pipes,  and  some  have  only  holes  by  means  of  which  air  can 
work  its  way  between  two  sets  of  uprights.  With  the  ventilator  prob- 
lem should  be  considered  the  electric  fan.  (See  Miscellaneous 
Equipment,  page  128.) 

FURNITURE 

Furniture  should  be  chosen  for  the  home  after  certain  funda- 
mental principles  have  been  considered.  Its  suitableness  as  to  size 
and  shape;  as  to  weight;  and  as  to  appearance,  comfort  and  use; 
the  style  and  the  service  each  style  may  have  to  give ;  the  cost  and 
the  possibility  of  renovation — all  these  must  be  taken  into  account. 

Selection. — Size,  in  relation  to  the  space  in  the  room,  must  be 
considered.  Very  large  pieces  not  only  overcrowd  a  small  room,  but 
if  they  are  also  massive  in  appearance  they  seem  to  dwarf  every 
thing  else.  They  are  hard  to  move,  and  so  make  cleaning  difficult. 

Shape. — The  drawers  in  a  piece  of  furniture  should  not  be  wider 
than  three  feet,  nor  deeper  than' eight  inches,  as  a  drawer  larger  than 
this  is  hard  to  manipulate  and  offers  a  temptation  to  over-crowding, 
making  it  too  heavy  to  pull  easily. 

Service. — In  choosing  any  article  of  furniture,  measure  its 
return  in  storage  space,  and  in  usefulness,  against  the  space  it  con- 
sumes in  the  room.  A  library  table  whose  top  surface  is  its  only 
usable  portion,  consumes  more  actual  space  than  one  with  a  lower 
shelf,  and  underhung  book  shelves,  for  instance.  A  serving  table 
that  combines  the  function  of  cupboard  with  an  extra  service-leaf 
saves  the  space  of  the  extra  article. 

Woods  used  are  likely  to  be  oak,  walnut,  mahogany,  with  birch 
as  a  frequent  substitute  for  the  latter.  Maple  is  occasionally  chosen 
for  bedroom  furniture. 


FIG.  109. — Washable  curtain  materials. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  171 

Oak  is  very  satisfactory  wood,  of  pleasing  grain  and  texture, 
very  durable,  and  capable  of  taking  many  different  finishes.  It  is 
quite  yellow  in  tone  unless  stained  or  "  fumed "  (treated  with 
ammonia  fumes  to  darken  it)  but  it  can  be  colored  almost  any  shade, 
from  greens,  browns  and  even  black.  The  highly  varnished,  shiny 
"golden  oak"  finish,  has  been  replaced  by  the  dull  lustre  of  the 
waxed  or  oiled  surface,  which  preserves  the  wood  itself  and  prevents 
scratches  from  showing. 

Walnut  is  the  most  beautiful  native  cabinet  wood  and  has  lost 
prestige  because  of  the  horrible  style  of  the  period  in  which,  it  was 
most  popular.  It  has  a  beautiful  color,  so  rich  and  dark  that  it 
needs  no  stain,  a  fine,  even,  close  grain,  with  very  beautiful  mark- 
ings, at  roots,  and  of  so  true  a  structure  that  it  is  the  cabinet- 
maker's first  choice  for  fine  carving  or  inlay  work. 

Bird  walnut  has  a  .grain  like  exaggerated  bird's  eye  maple,  and 
is  used  for  veneer  and  panelling. 

Mahogany  is  used  for  most  expensive  furniture,  even  though  to 
many  experts  it  has  not  as  great  beauty  as  walnut.  It  is  all  im- 
ported, and  the  choice  "  crotch  "  pieces,  where  the  trunk  leaves  the 
roots,  and  where  it  starts  to  branch,  are  reserved  for  veneering.  It 
has  a  fine,  close,  strongly  marked  grain,  and  before  staining  is  about 
the  color  of  native  cherry  wood.  The  better  furniture-makers  to-day 
are  using  a  dark  brown  stain  to  tone  its  color,  rather  than  the  strong 
red  which  prevailed  for  so  many  years.  In  many  pieces  of  furni- 
ture, back  and  sides,  or  unexposed  parts,  are  made  of  birch,  stained:, 
and  only  the  prominent  surfaces  are  of  mahogany.  The  grain  and 
texture  of  birch  make  it  an  excellent  substitute,  but  unfortunately, 
this  substitution  has  led  to  our  disregarding  birch  as  a  cabinet  wood 
for  its  own  sake.  With  all  of  these  latter  woods,  as  with  oak,  the 
finish  to-day  is  a  dull,  waxed  surface  that  does  not  reflect  ugly 
glaring  lights  from  every  angle. 

Construction  of  the  piece  is  very  important.  It  should  be 
stoutly  built  with  simple  lines  that  give  strength,  and  braces  that 
reinforce  points  of  natural  strain,  like  the  joining  of  seat  and  back 
in  a  chair,  the  joining  of  body  and  leg-posts  in  a  cabinet,  bureau,  or 
any  of  the  drawer-^pieces.  It  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  give  maxi- 
mum convenience  in  use;  it  should  set  absolutely  firm  and  solid 


172  HOUSEWIFERY 

on  a  plane  surface ;  it  should  give  a  clear  space  of  at  least  five  inches 
between  its  bottom  line  and  the  floor,  for  ease  of  cleaning.  Any 
drawers  should  run  smoothly  on  their  tracks,  and  should  be  built 
with  the  sides  dovetailed  to  the  front,  not  nailed  or  glued.  A  pro 
tecting  board  completely  closing  or  "  sealing "  the  drawer-space 
makes  them  dustproof.  Even  inexpensive  prices  may  be  simple  in 
line,  harmonious  in  proportion,  free  from  so-called  decoration  and 
finished  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  harmonize  with  any  scheme 
of  furnishing. 

Style. — The  lady's  desk,  set  on  four  spindle  legs,  and  with  no 
space  for  keeping  letters,  records,  or  supplies,  has  no  justification 
of  beauty  or  utility.  A  plain,  firm,  flat'  top  office  desk  will  give 
double  the  satisfaction. 

For  a  bureau  it  is  a  good  plan  to  buy  a  plain  chest  of  drawers, 
and  get  a  separate  mirror  to  hang  above  it,  instead  of  the  regulation 
dresser,  as  the  chest  of  drawers  can  be  used  in  many  places  where 
a  "  bedroom  dresser  "  would  be  impossible.  The  modern  "  four- 
poster  "  bed,  copied  from  Colonial  models,  has  no  excuse  for  modern 
reproduction,  since  bed  hangings  are  ruled  out  by  modern  sanitation. 
Choose  instead  a  bed  of  simple  lines,  with  low  head  and  footboard, 
easy  to  make  up,  and  allowing  free  circulation  of  air  to  the  sleeper. 

Light  Furniture. — With  the  bungalow  and  the  summer  house 
has  come  a  light  weight  and  light  appearing  furniture  which  is  com- 
paratively new  and  may  be  passing  in  style.  It  is  made  of  papier- 
mache,  twisted  in  cords  and  woven  on  frames ;  of  grass  fibre,  twisted 
or  braided  and  woven  on  frames ;  or  of  cretonnes  braided  and  woven 
on  frames. 

Then  there  are  more  substantial  types;  the  willow,  which  is 
made  of  the  young  sprouts  woven  on  wooden  frames,  and  the  reed 
or  rattan  which  is  a  plant  sent  from  China  which  is  barked  here 
in  America. 

Willow  furniture  is  made  in  most  attractive  types  to-day,  is 
strong,  sanitary,  durable,  and  harmonizes  so  well  with  almost  any 
kind  of  wood  that  it  fits  in  beautifully  for  the  odd  pieces,  such  as 
chairs,  that  are  so  often  needed.  It  can  be  stained  or  painted  to 
harmonize  with  any  color  scheme,  and  with  cretonne  as  cushions  cre- 
tonne is  often  useful  in  giving  just  the  tone  that  a  room  may  need. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  173 

Hand  work,  including  hand  carving,  of  course  costs  more  than 
machine  work,  while  real  antiques  are,  of  course,  often  priced  very 
high.  The  present  style  is  to  take  old  furniture,  even  fine  antiques, 
and  paint  them,  but  mahogany  will  not  be  harmed  by  this  as  many 
of  the  real  antiques  have  been  through  the  stage  of  the  painted  style. 

Some  housewives  are  informed  regarding  these  differences  in  style 
and  differences  of  value,  and  the  woman  who  is  informed  is  well 
repaid.  If  one  is  not  trained,  one  can  but  depend  upon  a  reliable 
store  or  dealer  to  get  the  best  for  the  money  to  be  spent ;  style  con- 
trols what  she  will  find  at  certain  times,  but  let  her  controlling 
thought  be  that  in  selection,  plain  lines  are  the  most  satisfactory 
and  durable,  are  always  acceptable,  and,  what  is  important  week  in 
and  week  out,  are  the  most  easily  cleaned. 

The  most  noticeable  difference  in  wooden  furniture  is  that  some 
is  without  upholstering,  some  is  partially  upholstered,  while  the 
heavy  living-room  and  library  furniture  is  often  so  entirely  uphol- 
stered that  no  wood  shows.  In  this  kind  of  furniture  the  feet  and 
tips  of  the  arms  are  of  good  wood,  while  the  frame  upon  which  the 
chair  is  built  is  simply  strong  oak  or  pine. 

Springs  are  well  set  in  all  good  upholstered  furniture,  and  be- 
sides the  quality  of  steel  in  the  spring,  one  must  consider  whether 
there  is  a  sufficient  number.  For  example,  three  rows  of  springs  in 
a  couch  length  will  give  more  service  than  two. 

Furniture  Coverings. — In  choosing  the  covering,  cost,  color, 
and  pattern  are  to  be  considered,  but  serviceableness  should  be  in- 
cluded with  the  other  requirements. 

Tapestries  are  usually  combined  fabrics — cotton  and  silk,  or 
wool  and  silk.  The  real  tapestry  is  all  wool  except  the  high  lights 
of  the  picture,  and  they  are  in  silk.  It  is  soft  in  color,  rich  in  tone, 
but  because  it  is  such  a  large  part  wool,  it  needs  care  to  keep  it 
clean  and  free  from  moths. 

Leather. — Real  leather  is  usually  either  cowhide  or  sheep  skin. 
The  cowhide  is  very  expensive,  but  very  serviceable,  and  its  service 
is  increased  if  one  will  give  it  frequent  rubbings  with  oil,  like  linseed, 
vaseline,  or  lemon  oil.  Use  a  light-colored  thin  oil,  as  every  dressing 
will  do  a  bit  toward  darkening  the  leather.  Sheep  skin  will  peel 
or  flake  easily ;  it  is  a  thinner  skin  than  cowhide.  Leather  is  very 
expensive ;  the  price  is  by  the  whole  skin,  $8  to  $30. 

Enamel  Cloth. — Enamel  cloth  is  only  an  imitation  leather,  and, 


174 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG    110.— Cotton  fabrics  for  draperies  and  upholstery.  A,  denim;  B,  cotton  repp: 
C,  poplin;  D,  cotton  repp. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 
A  B 


175 


• 

m 


FIG.  1 1 1  .—Fabrics  used  for  upholstery  and  draperies.    A ,  brocade ;  B,  velours. 


like  patent  leather,  varies  in  quality.     The  soft  enamel  cloth  will 

probably  do  less  cracking  as  it  will  be  more  pliable  to  wear  and  tear. 

Mohairs  give  excellent  service  and  are  especially  pleasing  in  the 

patterns  of  to-day.    The  black  hair  as  the  warp,  and  the  soft  browns 


176 


HOUSEWIFERY 


or  greens  as  the  woof,  produce  a  soft  pretty  color  effect  and  warmth 
that  the  old-fashioned  mohair  so  sadly  lacked. 

Repp  is  a  cotton  or  a  wool  material  woven  like  pique  (Fig.  110) 
with  deep  ridges.  It  is  serviceable,  more  expensive  than  denim, 
and  because  of  its  weave  much  richer  in  appearance. 

Denims  are  inexpensive  cotton  fabrics,  serviceable,  easily  dusted, 
but  few  are  proof  against  fading. 

Cretonnes  are  most  attractive  in  their  patterns  and  colorings, 
easily  cleaned,  not  expensive  for  renewal,  and  most  suitable  for  light 
decorations. 

All  kinds  of  upholstery  material  may  be  used  for  cushions 
(Fig.  Ill),  and  these  may  be  filled  with  such  material  as  excelsior, 
goat's  hair,  silk  floss,  cotton,  or  curled  hair.  The  curled  hair  no 
longer  good  enough  for  bed  mattresses  will  make  excellent  stuffing 
for  upholstery.  (See  also  Mattresses,  page  189.) 

LINEN 

The  qualities  that  make  linen  so  very  desirable  for  many  uses  are 
its  smooth  texture,  ability  to  absorb  and  give  up  moisture  rapidly, 
freshness  and  brilliancy  of  appearance,  ease  with  which  it  gives  up 
its  soil,  and  its  durability. 

Tests  for  Purity  of  Linen. — There  are  so  many  clever  adultera- 
tions of  linen  that  it  takes  an  expert  to  prove  that  it  is  not  linen, 
but  there  are,  however,  some  simple  tests  for  linen  which  anyone 
may  make : 


Test 

Method 

Results 

Linen 

Cotton 

Water 

Apply  a  drop  to 
material. 

Apply  lighted 
match  to  ends 
of  threads. 
Tear  across  the 
material. 

Apply  a  drop  to 
material. 

Water     spreads 
and  evapo- 
rates quickly. 
Burned  ends 
sharp,  smooth 
and  even. 
Hard    to    tear, 
sharp,  shrill 
sound,    edge 
smooth. 
Forms  transpa- 
rent spot. 

Water  acts  more 
slowly. 

Burned  ends  like 
a  paintbrush. 

Easy    to    tear, 
dull,    muffled 
sound,    edge 
curled. 
Is  not  absorbed 
but   rolls    up 
like  mercury. 

Burning 

Tearing  

Glycerine            

HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


177 


Essentials  of  Table  Linen. — The  qualities  desired  in  table 
linen  are  freshness  of  appearance,  weight  of  fabric  sufficient  so  that 
it  will  lie  flat  on  the  table,  but  a  quality  at  the  same  time  soft  and 
yielding  in  the  folds.  To  give  these  qualities  the  linen  must  be  pure. 

In  weaving  linen  the  use  of  a  single  thread  makes  a  single 
damask ;  two  threads,  a  double  damask.  The  double  damask  weave 
is  the  more  desirable,  and  the  pattern  stands  out  distinctly,  due  to 
the  play  of  light  and  shade  on  the  threads.  There  is  a  distinct 
fashion  in  the  patterns  of  table  linen,  due  directly  to  the  demands 
of  the  public  for  alternating  styles ;  there  are  patterns  permanently 
acceptable,  however.  Select  a  small  "  all-over  "  pattern  rather  than 
a  large  pattern,  with  very  wide  satin  stripes,  as  the  long  overshot 
threads  which  make  the  large  pattern  are  likely  to  be  pulled  or 
broken  in  ironing.  Beware  of  over-sizing  or  starched  linen  as 
this  is  put  on  to  cover  up  the  poor  quality  of  the  linen,  and  disap- 
pears in  the  wash,  leaving  a  flimsy  fabric  with  no  wearing  qualities. 
"  Union "  means  half  linen  and  half  cotton.  It  has  some  of  the 
qualities  of  linen,  but  turns  gray  like  cotton. 

The  firmness  of  the  weave  depends  upon  the  number  of  threads 
per  square  inch,  which  are  easily  counted  with  a  magnifying  glass 
or  weaver's  glass.  Medium  quality  linen  has  180  warp  threads  and 
very  fine  quality  220  warp  threads  per  square  inch.  The  average 
weight  is  four  and  a  half  ounces  per  square  yard.  Weight  and 
firmness  are  controlling  characteristics — not  stiffness.  A  good 
quality  of  single  damask  is  better  than  a  poor  quality  of  double 
damask. 

Linen  may  be  purchased  in  the  natural  color  (unbleached),  silver 
bleached  (quarter,  half,  and  three-quarters  bleached)  and  pure 
white.  The  unbleached,  of  course,  has  the  greatest  wearing  quali- 
ties. The  method  of  bleaching  modifies  the  wearing  qualities  of  the 
linen  to  a  large  degree,  the  sun  and  grass  bleaching  being  far  less 
injurious  to  the  fibre  than  the  more  modern  and  rapid  chemical 
bleach. 

The  linen  varies  according  to  its  national  origin  (Fig.  112), 
Scotch  being  the  cheapest,  then  Irish,  and  then  French.  Scotch 
linen  is  not  the  highest  grade,  but  it  gives  long  wear  at  a  low 
cost,  because  it  is  mostly  sun  and  grass  bleached.  Irish  linen  comes 
in  both  poorer  and  higher  grades.  It  is  noted  for  its  snowy  white- 
ness, evenness  of  texture,  and  beautiful  designs;  the  «snowdrop  and 
12 


178 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  112. — Table  linens. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  179 

shamrock  are  typical  Irish  patterns.  French  linen  is  made  only  in 
the  higher  grades,  and  is  very  expensive,  its  cost  being  almost  three 
times  that  of  Scotch.  It  excels  in  design  and  wonderful  finish. 
Belgian  linen  is  highly  recommended  for  its  good  quality  and  mod- 
erate cost.  There  is  no  domestic  damask,  as  America  has  not  de- 
veloped the  linen  industry. 
Sizes  of  Table  Linen. 

Sizes  of  tablecloths  unhemmed: 

Width  in  yards:  Length  in  yards: 

1  1       to  1% 

2  2       to  4 
2y4  21/4  to  31/3 
2J/>                      2i/2  to  8 

3  3       to  6 
3%  31/2   to  6% 

1,  2,  4,  5  yard  squares  for  cutting  round. 

Hemmed   or  scalloped   tablecloths: 
36  in.x36  in.   (tea   cloth) 
54  in.  x  54  in. 
72  in.x72  in. 
80  in.xSO  in. 
90  in.  x90  in. 

Sizes  of  napkins  unhemmed: 

Breakfast    19  in.  to  22  in. 

Tea     16  in.  to  18  in. 

Dinner     24  in.  to  32  in. 

Size  of  doilies : 

12  in.,  14  in.,  16  in.,  20  in.,  24  in. 

The  prices  of  table  linen  are  so  variable  that  it  is  not  possible 
to  quote  prices  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  Tablecloths  by  the 
yard  are  the  cheapest ;  a  cloth  by  the  yard  woven  with  a  border  on 
all  sides  will  cost  50-75  cents  more  than  the  same  sized  cloth  without 
the  border.  Eound  cloths  come  in  1,  2,  4,  and  5  yd.  squares  for 
cutting,  $2  extra  charge  is  made  to  hem  these  cloths. 

Napkins. — Allow  one  dozen  to  each,  cloth.  If  the  housekeeper 
is  to  have  only  one  handsome  set  it  is  wise  to  allow  two  dozen 
napkins  to  each  cloth;  the  napkins  receive  harder  wear  than  the 
cloth. 

Towels. — The  greatest  essential  of  a  towel  is  that  it  should 
be  soft,  and  should  absorb  moisture  rapidly.  An  all-linen  towel  best 
meets  these  requirements.  Huckaback  towels  (Fig.  113)  are  most 


180 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  113. — Different  weaves  of  huckaback. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


181 


FIG.  114. — Showing  different  weaves  of  towelling.     Crash  towelling  used  mostly  in  the 

kitchen. 


used,  because  their  roughness  and  looseness  of  weave  makes  a  good 
surface  for  absorption.  Damask  towels  are  very  beautiful,  but  are 
not  so  efficient,  as  they  do  not  absorb  moisture  readily. 

Cotton  or  union  towels  (linen  and  cotton)   are  much  cheaper, 


182 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  115. — Samples  of  checked  towelling,  often  called  glass  towelling. 

but  have  two  disadvantages :  they  are  less  absorbing,  and  because  of 
the  cotton  they  gray  and  darken  with  wear,  making  them  look- 
constantly  dirty.  Wash  cloths  and  bath  towels  often  illustrate  this. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  183 

Towel  Sizes. — The  usual  sizes  for  towels  are  14  x  20  and  24  x  45 
inches;  prices  per  dozen  vary  according  to  the  material  about  as 
follows:  Cotton,  $1.75  to  $2.75;  huck,  $5.00  to  $15.00;  union, 
$3.00  to  $4.50;  damask,  $16.00  up. 


FIG.  116.— 4,  Dish  cloths;  B,  dish  towels. 


Kitchen  towels  are  of  three  types:  glass  towelling  (Fig.  115), 
for  glass  and  china;  crash  towelling  (Fig.  114),  to  be  used  for  heavy 
cooking  utensils;  and  crash  towelling,  for  hand  towels.  For  glass 
towelling  one  may  best  choose  a  linen  fabric,  because  linen  has  the 


184  HOUSEWIFERY 

best  power  of  absorption,  and  because  it  has  no  lint.  Usually  it  is 
checked  (Fig.  115)  ;  if  so,  the  towelling  with  red  lines  or  checks 
will  keep  the  color  better  than  that  with  blue.  Crash  towelling  is  a 
cheaper,,  sturdier  quality  of  linen,  and  is  better  suited  to  the  rough 
work  such  as  drying  cooking  utensils  and  knives.  The  towel  with 
the  word  "  dish  towel "  or  "  glass  towel "  woven  into  it  is  one  of  the 
most  expensive,  and  no  better  than  the  plain  towels.  Hand  towels 
should  be  of  softer  weave,  and  may  be  bought  with  a  pattern  that 
makes  them  distinct  from  other  towels  in  the  kitchen.  Kitchen 
towelling  varies  in  width  from  seventeen  to  twenty-one  inches.  The 
prices  range  from  twelve  to  eighteen  cents  for  cotton  to  eighteen  to 
thirty  cents  for  linen.  A  cheaper  linen  towel  is  preferable  to  a 
finer  cotton  one. 

Dish  cloths  and  wash  cloths  should  be  chosen  with  a  soft, 
spongy  weave,  rather  rough,  but  always  so  spongy  as  either  to  hold 
water  or  to  be  easily  wrung  dry  (Fig.  116). 

Suggestions  to  Guide  in  Buying  Linen. — An  understanding 
of  the  qualities  to  look  for  in  linen  is  the  first  essential  of  a  suc- 
cessful buyer.  Always  buy  linen  of  a  reliable  firm  and  of  a  salesman 
who  knows  quality.  For  economy,  buy  when  some  reliable  house  has 
a  "  sale  "  of  good  linen.  These  sales  are  business  propositions  to 
arouse  trade,  and  are  often  planned  to  clear  the  shelves  of  patterns 
that  are  not  in  style  at  the  time.  Style  stimulates  trade.  At  these 
times  the  housekeeper  may  restock  her  shelves  and  have  reserve  linen 
on  hand.  Too  much  ahead  is  as  poor  planning  as  none,  because 
linen  will  turn  yellow  and  crack  on  the  folds  if  kept  too  long.  To 
prevent  cracking,  it  would  be  wise  occasionally  to  change  the  folding. 

Suggested  Quantities  of  Household  Linen  to  Buy. — 

4  sheets  per  bed  or  if  beds  are  all  of  same  size,  3  sheets  per  bed. 
3  pillow  cases  per  pillow. 
2  blankets  per  bed. 

2  spreads  per  bed. 

6  face  towels  per  person. 

3  bath  towels  per   person. 

2  bath  mats  for   bathroom. 

1  large  dinner  table  cloth. 

3  changes  of  napkins   (at  least)   per  week. 

3  everyday  table  cloths,  if  luncheon  sets  are  used. 
6  everyday  table  cloths  if  nothing  -else   is  used. 
6  glass  towels  per  week. 

6  crash  towels  per  week. 

2  oven  cloths  per  week. 

7  hand  towels  per  week. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  185 

Marking  Linen. — Methods  of  marking  are  of  two  general 
kinds:  Ink  marking,  such  as  pen  ^nd  ink,  stencil,  and  machine 
marking  (like  a  typewriter)  ;  and  thread  marking,  such  as  bonnay 
embroidery  (chain  stitch  done  by  a  machine),  woven  tapes,  and 
hand  embroidery  (Fig.  117).  Eapidity  and  cheapness  characterize 
the  ink  method.  Serviceableness,  ease  of  application,  and  good 
style  describe  the  thread  method.  For  linen  that  is  to  be  ironed 
by  machinery,  the  bonnay  and  embroidered  letter  will  be  the  least 


MCH 


FIG.   117. — Different  ways  of  marking  personal  and  household  linen. 

lasting.  No  matter  how  it  is  done,  choose  a  regular  place  for  the 
name  to  be  put  on  each  individual  kind  of  linen  article,  as  it  does 
much  to  help  in  sorting  laundered  clothes.  The  accepted  color  for 
embroideries  is  usually  white  and  separate  initials  are  not  only 
more  legible,  but  considered  better  style  than  monograms. 

The  place  for  the  mark  varies  with  style,  but  the  standard  place 
is  here  given: 

Tablecloths  should  show  the  marking  when  the  cloth  is  on  the 
table.  A  cloth  hangs  from  the  table  *4  or  Vs  yard.  The  monogram 


186  HOUSEWIFERY 

or  initial  should  be  on  the  top  of  the  table  about  six  inches  from 
the  edge,  at  the  right  of  the  host  or  hostess,  unless  there  is  a  special 
medallion  woven  for  a  mark. 

Napkins  are  marked  in  the  corner,  in  the  middle  of  the  square 
produced  by  the  final  fold.  They  may  be  marked  in  the  center,  in 
which  case  the  napkin  must  be  folded  in  thirds  when  ironed. 

Sheets,  pillow-cases  and  towels  are  marked  in  the  middle  of  the 
hemmed  end,  six  inches  from  the  end,  so  as  to  be  read  from  the  hem. 

Han  dicer  chiefs. — If  marked  with  embroidered  letter,  in  the  cor- 
ner;  if  with  pen  and  ink,  in  the  center. 

BEDS  AND  BEDDING 

Bedding  is  a  problem  to  which  one  should  give  considerable 
thought,  because  the  materials  are  purchased  for  lasting  service,  and 
because  of  the  large  first  cost  the  possibility  of  renovation  should 
be  well  considered. 

The  Bedstead. — Bedsteads,  unless  of  special  dimensions,  are 
usually  six  feet  three  inches  in  length  and  four  feet  six  inches  in 
width  for  full  size;  four  feet  wide,  for  three-quarter  beds;  three 
feet  and  three  feet  six  inches,  for  single  beds ;  and  three  feet  and 
two  feet  six  inches  wide  for  couch  beds ;  while  cribs  are  about  two 
feet  six  inches  wide  by  four  feet  six  inches  in  length. 

The  least  expensive  bed  is  a  couch  or  cot  which  serves  two  pur- 
poses, a  day  couch  and  a  night  bed.  Special  care  must  be  given  to 
the  selection  of  strong  springs  on  such  a  bed,  as  the  day  couch  has 
often  the  strain  of  sitting  on  the  springs.  Larger  beds  are  bought 
to  be  used  as  night  beds  and  are  less  likely  to  have  the  strain  of 
being  sat  upon.  Strain  is  the  only  word  to  use  as  the  hardest  use 
that  a  spring  has  is  that  of  being  stretched  on  the  sides  by  a  person 
sitting  on  the  bed. 

Metal  beds  are  the  easiest  to  keep  clean  and  are  to  be  recom- 
mended rather  than  wooden  bedsteads  or  such  special  types  as 
rattan.  The  best  quality  iron  bed  finished  in  white  enamel  makes  a 
serviceable,  attractive  bed  at  less  cost  than  a  brass  bed,  and  one 
that  is  the  easiest  to  care  for.  Iron  may  also  be  enamelled  to  repre- 
sent wood,  making  a  bed  less  like  a  cottage  or  institution  bed  and 
one  that  harmonizes  with  mahogany  and  walnut  furniture.  Brass 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


187 


beds  are  expensive,  as  the  better  quality  requires  a  good  metal  foun- 
dation and  a  heavy  brass  finish;  and  they  require  care  to  keep 
attractive  in  appearance.  A  good  metal  bed  should  have  welded  cor- 
ners, no  sign  of  a  tube  being  seamed,  and  firm  joints. 

Springs. — No  matter  what  the  size,  the  springs  may  be  classed 
under  four  types — woven  wire,  most  common  in  cots  and  cheaper 
beds  (Fig.  118,  a  and  5)  ;  national  springs  (Fig.  119)  ;  and  spiral, 


FIQ.  118. — A,  woven  wire  spring  which  cannot  be  renewed  when  stretched;   B,  woven  wire 
spring  with  coil  springs  at  each  end.     These  end  springs  may  be  renewed. 

which  may  or  may  not  be  boxed  springs.  A  statement  of  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  eacli  kind  may  help  the  housekeeper 
to  choose. 

The  weight  of  the  body  causes  all  springs  to  stretch  and  finally 
to  sag.  The  cheapest  woven-wire  spring  has  little  possibility  of  being 
tightened.  To  overcome  this,  the  better  makes  are  reinforced  by 
weaving  groups  of  wire  at  regular  intervals  to  strengthen  the  struct- 
ure so  that  it  will  resist  stretching.  The  edges,  too,  are  made  of  a 


188 


HOUSEWIFERY 


roll  of  woven  wire,  or  even  a  steel  rod  may  be  run  lengthwise  of  the 
edge  to  prevent  stretching. 

The  national  springs,  being  built  up  of  sections  of  wire  with 
strong  springs  at  the  end  of  each  line  of  wire  to  give  tension,  may  be 
renewed  by  replacing  sections.  For  a  medium  priced  spring,  the 
national  will  give  excellent  service. 

The  spiral  spring  is  a  set  of  vertical  wire  spirals,  similar  to 
those  used  in  upholstered  furniture,  the  individual  springs  being 


FIG.   119. — A  national  spring  which  may  be  repaired  by  replacing  the  springs  at  each  end 
or  by  putting  in  new  links. 

set  upon  a  metal  or  wood  base.  If  individual  spirals  are  broken, 
they  can  be  replaced.  It  is  a  comfortable  spring,  but  more  difficult 
to  clean  than  the  woven  and  national  types. 

The  box  spring  is  the  most  expensive,  and  is  made  up  of  spiral 
springs  wTith  a  padding  like  a  thin  mattress  laid  on  the  spirals 
and  the  whole  enclosed  in  a  ticking  cover.  This  spring  makes  a 
warmer  bed,  and  is  the  most  comfortable  spring;  but  because  of 
being  enclosed  in  ticking,  it  is  the  most  difficult  to  keep  clean.  The 
relative  cost  is  tabulated. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


189 


BEDS 


Size 


Length 

Width 

Crib       

4'  6" 

2'  6'' 

Couch  bed  

6'0" 

2'  6",  3' 

Iron  or  Brass  

6'  3" 

3'0" 

Wood                                                

6'  3" 

3'  3" 

Iron  or  Brass                           

6'  3" 

3'  6" 

Iron  or  Brass                          

6'  3" 

4'0" 

6'  3" 

4'  6" 

SPRINGS 


National 

Woven 
Wire* 

Box 

Crib  

Couch  bed  

Iron  or  Brass  

$5.75 

$5.75 

Wood 

6  75 

6  75 

Iron  or  Brass  

7.50 

7.50 

1$20.00-$40.00 

Iron  or  Brass 

8  75 

8  75 

Iron,  Brass,  or  Wood 

10  75 

10  75 

Price 


*  The  price  of  springs  depends  on  amount  of  wire  rather  than  kind. 


MATTRESSES 


Kinds 

Hair 

Cotton  Fel 

b 

Price 

Weight 

Price 

Weight 

Crib  

$7  50  —  $17  25 

oo 

$6  45  .  $9  go 

1  ^  lb«? 

Couch  bed 

10  00  23  00 

0 

o  oo     90  on 

99  lh« 

Iron  or  Brass 

12  00      28  75 

*«o? 

1  1  QO  99  OO 

qrv  iu<j 

Wood 

12  00  30  00 

5^2^ 

10  on  99  7^ 

Of)        1U<J 

Iron  or  Brass  .       

15  00  —  34  50 

»  S'cr01 

OJ    S    03    J-J 

13  00  24  00 

Q£  lh<? 

Iron  or  Brass  
Iron,  Brass,  or  Wood..  . 

17.50—  40.25 
20.00—  48.00 

'   ^ 

13.60—  25.50 
14.00—  26.50 

40  Ibs. 
45  Ibs. 

Mattresses  and  pillows  are  usually  sold  by  the  same  store  or 
department  that  sells  springs.  The  composition  of  a  mattress,  with 
regard  to  cleanliness  of  material,  is  sometimes  controlled  by  state  or 


190 


HOUSEWIFERY 


local  legal  standards  or  inspection.    The  cost  varies  according  to  the 
different  materials  used  in  the  mattress  (Fig.  120). 

The  mattress  filling  may  be  corn  husk,  grass  or  hay,  wool  or 
cotton,  short  hair  like  goat's  hair,  or  good  horse  hair;  and  the 
latter,  which  is  commonly  used  in  better  mattresses,  may  vary 
widely  in  quality.  The  corn  husks,  or  grass  and  hay,  if  clean,  will 


FlO.  120.— Mattress  materials.     1,  Corn  husk;  2,  excelsior;  3,  ticking;  4  and  5,  Kapoc  silk 
floss;  6,  goats'  hair;  7,  grass;  8,  curled  horse  hair;  9,  mattress  made  in  classroom. 

make  a  cheap  mattress  which  will  give  service  as  long  as  it  does  not 
lump  or  break  up  into  small  pieces.  Sometimes  one-half  of  a  mat- 
tress is  made  of  a  layer  of  cotton,  with  grass  or  husks  in  the  other 
half,  which  adds  much  to  the  comfort. 

Tufting. — Most  mattresses  have  cotton  tufting,  arranged  in 
diamond  shape.  The  plain  tacking  seems  more  sanitary,  but  does 
not  wear  so  well.  Some  prefer  no  tufting  in  the  mattress.  Such 
a  mattress  must  be  of  good  quality  if  the  filling  does  not  slip  and 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  191 

pack.  The  imperial  rolled  edge  is  considered  the  best  finish ;  it  has 
four  rows  of  tacking  in  the  boxing.  All  the  better  grades  of  mat- 
tresses have  two  or  three  rows  of  tacking,  and  may  have  round 
corners  instead  of  square  ones. 

Cotton  Felt. — The  wool-felt  or  cotton-felt  mattress  is  a  cheap, 
comfortable,  and  durable  mattress.  All  cotton  mattresses  are  not 
cheap,  nor  in  any  way  a  makeshift ;  and  the  housekeeper  may  choose, 
after  considerable  investigation  to  buy  one  of  the  modern  cotton- 
felt  mattresses.  A  cotton-felt  mattress  is  built  up  of  layer  upon 
layer  of  thin  cotton,  and  the  whole  enclosed  in  a  tick;  it  is  not 
made  by  filling  a  tick  with  cotton  stuffing.  A  cotton  mattress,  if  of 
good  quality,  will  give  good  wear,  but  it  is  not  so  suitable  as  some 
other  materials  for  remaking.  Sunning  and  airing  the  cotton  mat- 
tress, and  in  fact,  any  mattress,  keeps  it  in  better  condition. 

Hair. — The  standard  mattress  has  been  considered  a  horse  hair 
mattress.  The  long  mane  and  tail  hair  is  used.  Tail  hair  is  first 
quality,  and  mane  hair  second  quality.  The  hair  is  washed,  sterilized 
under  high  pressure  steam,  and  twisted  in  huge  ropes  which  when 
uncoiled  make  a  curled  hair.  The  best  hair  comes  from  South 
America  and  Australia,  and  is  either  white,  black  or  gray.  The 
white,  if  a  natural  color,  is  the  most  expensive,  but  for  general 
use  it  is  far  more  important  to  buy  a  hair  of  good  length  regardless 
of  color.  Deterioration  of  the  hair  arises  through  the  wear  of  a 
mattress  causing  the  hair  to  break,  shorten,  and  then  lose  its  spring. 
Beating  mattresses  with  stick  beaters  breaks  the  hair.  Shorter  hair 
is  best  used  for  upholstery  and  cushions,  and  should  be  cheaper  in 
cost  than  the  long  hair.  The  average  price  and  weight  of  cotton 
felt  and  hair  mattresses  are  tabulated  on  page  189.  The  average 
life  of  a  hair  mattress,  without  renewal,  is  said  by  experts  to  be 
about  four  years.  This  of  course  varies  according  to  the  original 
grade  of  the  mattress,  and  also  the  daily  care  given  to  it.  To  clean 
and  care  for  a  bed,  see  page  250. 

Use  of  Feather  Beds. — Feather  beds  are  no  longer  being  used 
as  such,  but  as  the  feathers  are  really  valuable,  they  may  be  reno- 
vated and  used  in  one  of  two  ways.  They  may  be  made  into  feather 
pillows,  or  into  feather  mattresses.  The  latter  require  a  great 
many  feathers,  as  they  should  be  packed  tightly. 

Pillows,  like  mattresses,  have  a  great  range  in  quality.  They 
may  be  stuffed  with  silk  floss,  hair,  feathers,  or  down.  The  silk 


192  HOUSEWIFERY 

floss,  called  Kapoc,  from  the  cork-wood  tree  in  the  West  Indies, 
is  the  cheapest;  it  is  not  suitable  for  bed  pillows,  but  is  much  used 
for  couch  pillows. 

Feathers  may  be  white  or  gray.  The  best  goose  feathers  are 
procured  from  the  live  bird  in  the  spring,  about  six  birds  of  average 
size  furnishing  one  pound  of  feathers.  The  feathers  are  sold  by 
the  pound,  the  price  depending  upon  the  part  of  the  feather  used, 
and  upon  the  way  the  feathers  are  mixed.  The  parts  used  are  the 
whole  feather,  the  split  feather  which  has  had  the  quill  removed, 
and  the  down.  The  quality  differs  according  to  the  source :  chicken ; 
chicken  and  duck,  mixed  feathers ;  duck  and  goose,  mixed ;  goose  and 
down,  mixed;  down.  A  split  feather  will  give  good  service,  down 
will  pack,  and  is  expensive. 

Hair  pillows  are  cooler  and  firmer  than  feather  pillows,  and 
while  not  often  used  regularly  in  the  home,  are  sometimes  kept 
on  hand  for  use  in  case  of  sickness.  In  hotels,  the  hair  pillow  is 
often  the  bottom  pillow,  used  in  place  of  the  bolster. 

Pillows  are  not  regular  in  size,  varying  from  18"  x  30",  weighing 
21/2  Ibs.,  to  30"  x  30",  weighing  5  Ibs.  An  average  size  is  22"  x  30", 
weighing  3  Ibs.  Pillows  vary  in  cost,  from  $3  to  $5,  according  to 
size  and  quality  of  filling. 

Mattress  Pads  and  Covers. — Mattress  pads  protect  the  mat- 
tress from  soil  and  are  so  easily  washed  that  some  sort  of  pad  should 
be  used  on  all  beds.  Often  a  folded  blanket  or  cotton  quilt  is  used 
but  quilted  pads  may  be  purchased  which  are  standardized  to  fit 
various  mattresses. 

Dust  covers  entirely  covering  the  mattress  are  desirable  to  keep 
it  free  from  dust.  These  covers  may  be  bought  when  the  mattresses 
are  ordered  at  about  $4.50  for  single  bed  size,  or  the  housewife  can 
easily  make  them  by  using  two  pieces  of  unbleached  muslin,  each 
the  length  and  width  of  the  mattress,  and  sewing  in  a  five-inch  strip 
of  material  to  make  a  shallow,  box-shaped  bag  large  enough  to 
enclose  the  mattress.  The  edges  may  be  finished  with  a  double  seam 
by  sewing  first  on  one  side  and  then  turning  and  sewing  the  other. 
An  extra  half  inch  on  all  seams  will  have  to  be  allowed  in  cutting 
for  this  double  seam.  If  cotton  braid  is  used  for  a  bound  seam, 
then  one  needs  to  make  only  a  single  seam.  In  any  case  leave  one 
end  open  and  make  a  fastening  with  tapes,  or  buttons  and  button- 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  193 

holes,  or  hooks  and  eyes,  or  snappers.  Be  sure  to  allow  for  shrink- 
age ;  better  still,  shrink  the  muslin  before  cutting. 

Sheets  vary  widely  in  quality  and  elaborateness  of  finish,  but 
the  fundamental  difference  is  that  some  are  linen  and  some  cotton. 
The  linen  are  best  for  summer  use  because  linen  radiates  the  heat 
from  the  body ;  cotton,  on  the  contrary  is  warmer.  Linen  is  a  great 
deal  more  expensive ;  a  standard  double  sheet,  90  x  100,  costing 
from  two  to  three  times  as  much  as  the  best  cotton  sheet.  The  best 
cotton  sheet  is  called  percale.  There  is  a  wide  selection  now  avail- 
able of  various  grades,  in  standard  sizes,  so  that  there  is  little  reason 
for  making  sheets  at  home.  Buy  sheets  that  have  been  torn  before 
hemming,  as  they  are  straighter  than  if  cut;  hem-stitching  costs 
about  ten  to  twenty  cents  more  per  sheet.  Torn  sheets  are  stamped 
as  such.  The  saving  in  buying  sheeting  and  making  the  sheets 
at  home  has  little  advantage  from  the  money  side,  but  does  enable 
the  housewife  to  have  sheets  of  the  precise  size  that  she  prefers. 

Size. — There  are  a  variety  of  standard  sizes  (see  table  on  page 
196),  but  the  one  most  carefully  chosen  is  one  enough  larger  than  the 
mattress  to  allow  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  to  turn  in  on  all  sides, 
that  is,  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  longer  and  wider  than 
the  bed. 

Bedspreads. — The  housewife  may  choose  almost  any  covering 
for  the  bed,  if  she  has  the  spreads  made  (Fig.  121).  Cretonne, 
lace  over  color,  thread  crocheted  or  knitted,  crepe,  unbleached  mus- 
lin tufted  with  heavy  cotton  thread — all  are  used  in  making  up 
spreads.  If  one  buys  ready-made,  the  variety  is  limited  to  Mar- 
seilles, dimity,  or  lace.  Marseilles  is  heavy  and  usually  has  a  raised 
pattern,  while  the  dimity  is  light  in  weight,  easily  cleaned,  and  is 
deservedly  popular  for  a  simple  but  serviceable  spread  (Fig.  122). 
Fringe  is  pretty  on  spreads  that  are  not  to  be  tucked  in,  but  the 
tangling  and  tearing  of  the  thread  increases  the  work  of  laundering. 
For  old-fashioned  bed  coverings,  gimp  is  a  pretty,  quaint,  and 
much  more  serviceable  trimming  than  fringe. 

Blankets. — The  purchase  of  blankets  requires  a  great  deal  of 
experience  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser.  If  one  has  had  no  experi- 
ence, it  is  desirable  to  go  to  a  store  of  good  standing  and  be  advised. 
A  blanket  should  be  soft  and  warm  but  not  too  heavy.  The  quality 
and  percentage  of  the  wool  is  the  first  important  question.  French 
blankets  are  beautifully  finished.  Scotch  blankets  are  harsh  and 
13 


194 


HOUSEWIFERY 


have  a  poor  finish,  but  are  warm  and  durable.  English  blankets 
are  much  like  the  Scotch.  Domestic  blankets  compare  favorably 
with  any  of  the  others  in  both  texture  and  finish.  The  great  variety 
of  blankets  is  due  to  the  irregularity  of  length  of  wood  fibre  and 
the  weave.  Some  of  the  poor  qualities  appear  fluffy  and  woolly, 
but  the  short  wool  fibres  have  been  blown  into  the  warp  and  are  not 
tightly  woven.  Such  a  blanket  when  washed  will  lose  a  large 
amount  of  wool  and  finally  leave  only  the  cotton  warp. 


FIG.  121. — A  hand-woven  spread  long  enough  to  cover  pillow.     Made  by  Mrs.  Jessie  H. 
Woodruff,  Dunkirk,  N.  Y. 

The  grade  and  percentage  of  wool  really  controls  the  quality  and 
the  selling  price.  The  manufacturer  knows  the  exact  weight  of 
wool  and  cotton  in  each  blanket  made,  and  the  ticket  attached 
to  the  blanket  should  give  an  honest  statement.  The  blankets 
range  from  all  cotton  to  all  wool  (98  per  cent. ) .  A  100  per  cent,  wool 
blanket  really  does  not  exist.  A  good  medium  grade  is  about  60 
per  cent,  to  80  per  cent,  wool;  the  larger  percentage  of  wool  adds 
to  the  care  necessary  in  washing. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


195 


FIG.  122. — Various  weaves  of  counterpanes.    1  and  4,  Marseilles;  2  and  3,  dimity. 


196  HOUSEWIFERY 

Borders  of  blankets  are  more  important  than  one  would  imagine. 
The  variety  of  color  plays  little  part,  but  what  is  more  important  is 
that  the  border  is  made  of  the  same  quality  wool  and  not  of  cotton 
as  is  so  often  the  case.  The  ruffled  appearance  which  is  seen  after 
washing  is  due  to  the  wool  used  for  the  border  being  run  in  length- 
wise across  the  blanket  and  then  shrinking  in  length.  Hospital 
blankets  are  best  without  a  border. 

Blankets  are  usually  sold  double,  i.e.,  two  blankets  woven  to- 
gether at  one  end.  For  ease  of  handling,  and  to  save  the  blanket, 
it  is  desirable  to  cut  them  in  two  and  bind  the  cut  edges.  Blanket 
binding  ribbon  may  be  bought  for  this  purpose. 

Comfortables.  —  Comfortables  may  be  made  from  cheesecloth 
or  cotton  batting  fillings,  but  are  better  made  from  cheesecloth  and 
"  sheet  wool."  The  wool  can  be  purchased  in  stores  from  the  bedding 
department  just  the  size  for  single,  three-quarter,  and  full-size 
comfortables.  The  wool  washes  better,  and  if  tacked  or  quilted 
into  fine  cheesecloth,  it  will  make  an  excellent  comfortable,  light, 
warm  and  easily  cleaned.  Silkaline,  challie,  satins  and  silks  make 
more  elaborate  comfortables,  but  what  is  most  to  be  considered  is 
the  desirability  of  having  this  heavy  bedding  cleaned. 

Down  puffs  wash  very  well,  if  made  up  in  a  washable  cover. 
(See  page  282.) 

Sizes  of  Bedding: 


Size  of  Sheets:  8ize  °f 

72in.x    06  in.  22^  in.  x36  in.—  R  e  g  u  lation 


72  in.  x  108  in. 
90  in.  x    96  in. 


25  in.  x  36  in. 
27  in.  x  36  in. 


90  in.  x  108  in. 

Size  of  Blankets: 
Size  of  Bedspreads :  6Q  in  x  go  in  > 

72  in.  x    90  in.  1     .  ,  60  in.  x  90  in.  / 

72  in.  x  100  in.   I  SmSle  72  in.  x  82  in.  \  Three-q  u  a  r  t  e  r 

80  in.  x  100  in. — Three-q  u  a  r  -  72  in.  x  90  in.  /        bed 

ter      bed      or  76  in.  x  84  in.  \  Dmihl_  hpd 

double      not  80  in.  x  90  in.  /  Doubl< 

hang  down 

90  in.  100  in.— Double  bed  Comfortables,  one  size: 

97  in.  x  116  in. — Extra  size  72  in.  x  78  in. 

SILVERWARE 

Silverware  is   classed  under   the   two   headings — "  solid "   and 
"  plated/7     Solid  or  sterling  silver,  which  means  about  925  parts  of 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


197 


silver  to  75  parts  of  copper,  is  the  best,  the  most  expensive,  and  will 
outwear  the  best  plate  silver.  The  solid  silver  is  an  alloy  of  silver 
and  copper.  The  plated  ware  has  a  coating  of  silver  deposited  by 
electrolysis  upon  a  suitable  base,  e.g.,  on  steel  for  knives  and 
forks,  on  German  silver  for  spoons,  and  on  Britannia  metal  for  hol- 
low ware.  In  sterling  silver,  the  heavier  weight  is  the  most  desir- 
able, as  the  lighter  weights,  if  given  any  hard  use,  bend,  dent,  or 
even  break. 

For  constant  use  plated  ware  recommends  itself  to  the  average 
household.  The  better  plated  silver  on  the  market  compares  very 
favorably  with  sterling  silver  in  appearance  and  durability,  and  is 
much  less  expensive.  Triple  plate  is  the  best  plate,  but  often  the 
most-used  silver  is  double  or  even  single  plate.  The  idea  expressed 
in  these  terms  leads  one  to  think  that  silver  is  dipped  or  coated  so 
many  times;  instead,  it  means  that  a  certain  weight  of  silver  is 
allowed  as  a  coating  to  every  dozen  pieces.  For  example,  it  is  better 
to  have  knives  or  forks  stamped  "15  dwt./'  meaning  that  fifteen 
pennyweight  has  been  used  in  coating  a  dozen.  Tablespoons  marked 
20  dwt.  will  equal  teaspoons  marked  "  10  dwt.,"  because  the  area 
of  a  tablespoon  is  about  twice  that  of  a  teaspoon.  Bottoms  of 
bowls  and  backs  of  handles  should  have  an  extra  coating,  because 
they  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  wear. 

The  number  of  pieces  in  the  making  of  each  finished  piece  of 
silver  also  controls  the  cost.  A  bowl  made  of  two  pieces  costs 
about  half  what  the  same  size  and  weight  bowl  will  cost  if  made 
up  of  several  pieces,  i.e.f  handles,  spouts,  and  mounts.  Sometimes 
the  "mounts/'  which  are  bands  or  finishing  sections,  are  ornamented, 
thus  increasing  the  cost  considerably.  The  'bright  finish  costs 
slightly  more  than  the  frosted  or  satin  finishes  in  silver. 

Silver-plating  solutions  advertised  for  use  in  the  home  are  very 
likely  to  be  composed  of  solutions  of  mercury  salts.  In  this  case, 
mercury  is  deposited  on  the  spoon,  giving  a  bright  silvery  appear- 
ance, but  the  housewife  must  remember  that  mercury  salts  are 
poisonous. 

Patterns  and  shapes  in  flat  and  hollow  silverware  vary  from 
time  to  time  to  suit  changing  fashions,  but  plain,  simple  patterns 
are  always  in  good  taste  and  are  permanently  on  the  market.  The 
very  plain  patterns  will  be  more  easily  cleaned,  but  will  show 
scratches  more  readily.  In  selecting  the  pattern  it  is  therefore  well 


198  HOUSEWIFERY 

to  consider  the  time  and  labor  it  will  take  to  keep  it  as  clean  and 
attractive  as  when  new,  and  to  select  in  terms  of  economy  in  caro 
as  well  as  of  appearance. 

For  Cleaning  Silver,  see  pages  260-262. 

HOUSEHOLD  POTTERY  AND  GLASS 

Household  Pottery. — All  household  pottery,  whether  for 
kitchen  or  table  use,  is  of  two  general  types :  earthenware  and  porce- 
lain or  china.  All  pottery  is  made  of  earth  products  molded  and 
then  baked  at  high  temperature;  and  for  household  pottery  the 
entire  surface  is  covered  with  a  glass-like  glaze  which  is  fired  upon 
the  pottery.  The  two  types  mentioned  differ  in  the  constituent 
materials  and  in  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  inner  body.  In 
earthenware  the  inner  body  is  soft,  and  in  porcelain  or  china  it 
is  hard. 

Kitchen  or  cooking  ware  is  ordinarily  earthenware  and  is 
produced  in  various  colors ;  porcelain  cooking  utensils  are  also  now 
available.  Ordinary  cooking  ware  is  given  a  hard  glaze  to  prevent 
food  getting  below  the  surface ;  if  in  time  the  surface  glaze  "  crazes  '' 
or  cracks,  the  dish  becomes  discolored  and  may  possibly  impart 
a  flavor  to  food  cooked  in  it.  Someone  has  said  that  the  much-used 
old-fashioned  porcelain  pie  plate  needs  only  to  be  placed  in  the 
oven  to  produce  a  juicy,  well-flavored  pie.  This  cooking  ware  can- 
not be  subjected  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature  like  metal  articles. 
To  cool  it  suddenly  in  cold  water  may  cause  "  crazing  "  or  even  peel- 
ing of  the  glaze,  and  cracking  of  the  dish. 

Table  ware  is  available  in  the  two  general  types  of  glazed 
ware,  the  earthenware  which  has  the  soft  inner  body,  and  the  porce- 
lain or  china  (Fig.  123 )'  (so-called  because  first  made  in  China)  with 
the  hard  inner  body.  The  earthen  table  ware  is  the  familiar  heavy 
white  table  ware  often  called  <e  stoneware/'  which  is  less  expensive 
than  the  porcelain  and  accordingly  finds  a  wide  use  in  homes  and 
in  restaurants  and  institutions. 

China  or  porcelain,  which  is  more  expensive,  differs  from  earthen- 
or  white-ware  in  two  ways.  First,  it  is  hard  glazed  and  non-absorb- 
ing; even  if  chipped  and  the  glaze  broken  no  stain  remains  because 
of  absorption.  Ink  may  be  used  as  a  test.  Secondly,  it  is  trans- 
lucent, showing  light  through.  Porcelain  is  less  likely  to  chip  than 
earthenware,  and  so  is  more  serviceable,  but  it  is  more  brittle. 


PlO.  123.— ^Good  selection  of  china  and  silver.  Three  sections  at  the  right  holding  flat  silver 
are  built  as  a  sliding  tray,  thereby  increasing  the  storage  capacity  of  the  drawer. 


200  HOUSEWIFERY 

The  best  quality  table  china  should  be  hard,  compact,  non-absorbent, 
highly  glazed,  and  of  fine  grain.  The  finest  ware  is  made  of  flint 
or  feldspar.  The  higher  the  glaze  and  the  more  compact  the  body, 
the  more  brittle  is  the  china. 

To  produce  fine  china,  the  materials  must  be  properly  propor- 
tioned, mixed,  and  prepared,  and  the  baking  must  be  exactly  right 
as  to  intensity  and  duration  of  heat.  To  get  this  perfection  of 
glaze,  great  patience  and  skill  are  required,  and  as  a  result  china 
or  porcelain  is  expensive.  If  the  glaze  and  the  body  are  not  suited 
to  each  other,  the  glaze  shrinks  and  causes  "  crazing." 

There  are  two  grades  of  table  ware :  "  firsts,"  perfect  in  shape, 
design,  and  glaze,  bring  the  highest  price ;  "  seconds  "  are  imperfect 
in  one,  two,  or  all  three  requirements.  One  may  select  table  ware 
imperfect  in  either  shape  or  design,  but  should  never  accept  a  piece 
imperfect  in  glaze,  as  the  glaze  is  the  protection. 

In  selecting  there  are  old  standard  patterns  available  as  in  table 
linen,  such  as  "  willow,"  "  madras,"  etc.,  and  there  are  new  designs. 
Two  types  that  are  popular  are  the  band  of  colors,  either  solid  or 
broken,  and  the  band  of  gold.  The  colored  bands  are  always  in 
good  taste,  because  the  design  is  simple  and  pleasing  when  con- 
sidered in  combination  with  flowers',  linen,  and  food.  The  single 
gold  bands  are  most  attractive,  but  more  expensive  and  less  durable 
because  gold  cannot  be  fired  to  such  a  high  temperature.  Avoid 
ridges  in  patterns ;  choose  handles  that  are  easily  grasped ;  and  china 
in  general  that  is  not  overdecorated,  especially  if  one  must  use  the 
same  set  of  dishes  continually.  It  is  greater  economy  to  buy  what  is 
known  as  "open  stock"  pattern,  so  that  any  replacing  of  broken 
dishes  may  be  done  at  any  time  and  at  little  cost.  This  is  possible 
in  expensive  as  well  as  in  cheaper  dishes. 

Suggestions  for  Buying  China. — European  and  Oriental 
porcelains  are  "  biscuited  "  at  a  low  temperature  which  makes  this 
kind  of  china  superior  as  to  glaze.  European  china  is  bluish  white, 
while  American  china  is  cream  white.  There  is  no  special  value, 
however,  in  the  color  as  far  as  wear  is  concerned.  English  and 
Oriental  china  are  the  more  fragile,  while  the  American  has  the 
stronger  body,  resisting  shocks.  American  china  is  giving  excellent 
service,  and  many  good  types  have  been  developed  which  are  equal 
to  the  imported  porcelains.  American  china  is  most  worthy  of 
the  housewife's  consideration. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


201 


A  rolled  edge  on  china  prevents  chipping,  and  so  is  of  special 
service  for  hotel  and  institution  china ;  it  does  not  necessarily  mean 
a  thick  china. 

Decorations  on  china  are  put  on  by  hand,  or  by  the  decalcomania 
process.  Decalcomania  is  a  process  of  transferring  designs  directly 
upon  the  china,  and  is  the  process  commonly  used.  To  decorate 
by  hand  is,  of  course,  very  slow,  detailed  work,  all  of  which  means 
very  expensive  china. 

Table  Service  for  Six  (Limited). — 

China : 

12  dinner  plates 

12'  breakfast  plates 

12  soup  dishes  (plates  or  cups) 

12  breakfast   cups  and   saucer  a 

12  tea  cups  and  saucers 

24  bread  and  butter  plates 

1  10  in.  dish 

1  12  in.  dish 

1  16  in.  dish 

1  18  in.  dish 

1  covered  vegetable  dish  (oval) 

1  covered  vegetable  dish 

(round) 

2  platters,  medium   and  large 
1  soup  tureen 

1  sauce  boat  or  bowl 
1  salad  bowl — can  be  used  for 
vegetables 


Glass: 

12  glasses 
6  finger  bo  wig 
1  pudding  dish 
1  creamer 

1  sugar 

might   be    in    china, 
silver,   if  not  in 
glass 
12  sherbet  glasses 

2  salts 


2  peppers 
1  vase 


12  tea  cups  and  saucers 
6  after-dinner  cups  and 

saucers 
1  chop  platter 

12  oatmeal  dishes 

12  sauce  dishes 


Silver: 
12  forks 
12  knives 

6  bread  and  butter  knives 

4  tablespoons 
24  teaspoons 

6  dessert   spoons — round   bowl 
good  for  soup 

1  sugar  spoon 

1  butter  knife  or  fork 


With  regard  to  table  equipment,  the  number  of  individual  dishes 
is  controlled  by  the  size  of  the  family,  and  the  kind  of  service 
desired.  Most  housewives  would  choose  dainty  service  and  good 
style,  and  would  prefer  to  have  convenient  dishes  in  adequate  num- 
ber and  appropriate  silver,  even  if  less  expensive  china  and  silver 
and  glass  is  chosen.  For  such  a  standard,  which  is  strongly  recom- 
mended, buy  twice  as  many  of  all  individual  dishes,  glasses,  and 
silver,  as  the  number  in  the  family.  This  makes  possible  enter- 
taining with  much  less  worry  and  work,  and  relieves  one  of  the 
feeling  of  not  having  enough.  It  is  certainly  a  reasonable  standard 


202  HOUSEWIFERY 

to  choose  china,  glass,  and  silver  which  is  not  expensive  to  re- 
place and  is,  therefore,  not  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the  housewife. 

Glassware. — Most  people  appreciate  beautiful  glass,  for  in 
table  service  particularly  nothing  can  surpass  it.  It  gives  a  finish- 
ing touch  of  beauty  and  simple  elegance.  Glassware  is  known  as 
pure  lead  glass  and  lime  glass.  A  preponderance  of  lime  produces 
a  very  brittle  glass,  while  lead  gives  a  glass  that  is  tough  and  wears 
well.*  Of  the  different  grades,  rock  crystal  or  pure  leaf  glass  is  the 
clearest  and  finest  produced.  The  determining  qualities  of  glass 
are  its  smoothness,  brilliancy,  freedom  from  bubbles  and  cloudiness, 
whiteness,  and  transparency. 

Decoration  of  glass  is  done  by  etching  with  acids  or  by  cutting 
with  emery  wheels.  Cut  glass  needs  very  great  care.  Sudden 
changes  of  temperature  or  a  slight  knock  are  likely  to  break  the 
glass  along  the  line  of  cut.  It  is  therefore  not  desirable  for  constant 
family  use.  Pressed  glass  is  much  less  expensive  and  some  of  the 
products  are  almost  as  beautiful  as  the  more  expensive  cut  glass,  and 
for  everyday  service  they  are  much  more  desirable.  The  poorest 
qualities  are  heavy  and  show  the  seam  where/  the  halves  are  joined. 

Many  makers  of  glass,  like  makers  of  china,  stamp  their  name 
in  the  bottom  of  the  piece.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  purchaser 
to  know  some  of  these  trade-marks  and  the  quality  which  they 
represent. 

Good  plain  lead  table  glasses  cost  from  $1.25  to  $1.75  per  dozen. 
Cut  glass  varies  widely  in  price  according  to  the  elaborateness  of 
the  design  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  glass. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Given  a  living  room  on  the  north  side  of  the  house,  what  colors  would 

you  choose  for  wallpaper,  rugs  and  draperies? 

2.  How  do  home-made  rugs  compare,  economically,  with  those  purchased? 

Show  to  what  extent  the  housewife  may  or  may  not  be  justified  in 
making  her  own  rugs. 

3.  List   inexpensive  materials   which   might   be  used    in   place  of   regular 

curtain  materials. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  two- tone  color  materials  for  furnishings? 

5.  Why  may  not  willow  furniture  always  be  an  economical   purchase? 

REFERENCES 

BALL,  KATHARINE,  AND  WEST,  MIRIAM,  HOUSEHOLD  ARITHMETIC,     J.   B. 

Lippincott  Co. 
COOLEY,     ANNA,     MITCHELL,     CORA,     SPHOR,     WILHELMINA,     MARSHALL, 

JOSEPHINE,  TEACHING  HOME  ECONOMICS.    Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.  City. 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS  203 

Cox,  GEORGE  J.,  POTTERY.    Macmillan  Co. 

EBERLEIN,  HAROLD  DONALDSON,  THE  PRACTICAL  BOOK  OF  PERIOD  FURNITURE. 
Lippincott,  Pliila.,  1914. 

FARMERS'  BULLETIN  1089,  SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF  CLOTHING.  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

KELLOGG,  ALICE,  HOME  FURNISHING — PRACTICAL  AND  ARTISTIC.  Fred  A. 
Stokes  Co. 

KINNE,  HELEN,  AND  COOLEY,  ANNA,  CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH.   Macmillan  Co. 

McGowAN,  ELLEN,  AND  WAITE,  CHARLOTTE,  TEXTILES  AND  CLOTHING.  Mac- 
millan Co. 

PARSONS,  FRANK,  INTERIOR  DECORATION.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

PRIESTMAN,  MABEL,  ART  AND  ECONOMY  IN  HOUSEHOLD  DECORATION.  John 
Lane  Co. 

QUINN,  MARY  J.,  PLANNING  AND  FURNISHING  THE  HOME.     IJarper.  &  Bros. 

ROLPH,  AMY,  HOME  DECORATION.    Macmillan  Co. 

SOUDER,  M.  ATTIE,  NOTIONS.    Ronald  Press  Co. 

THOMPSON,  ELIZA  B.,  TEXTILES  :  COTTONS  AND  LINENS.    Ronald  Press  Co. 

THOMPSON,  ELIZA  B.,  TEXTILES  :  SILKS.   Ronald  Press  Co. 

VAN  RENSSELAER,  MARTHA,  THE  MANUAL  OF  HOME-MAKING.  The  Macmil- 
lan Co.,  New  York  City. 

VON  HOLST,  H.  V.,  MODERN  AMERICAN  HOMES.    American  Technical  Society. 

WOOI.MAN.  MARY  SCHENCK,  CLOTHING:  CHOICE,  CARE,  COST.  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Co. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
STORAGE 

STORAGE  is  such  an  important  matter  that  the  consideration  of  it 
should  begin  when  the  house  is  first  planned  with  the  architect.  The 
architect  should  be  eager  to  cooperate,  so  that  in  his  skilled  way  he 
may  express  on  paper  the  practical  ideas  of  the  housewife,  whose 
suggestions  may  be  most  definite  and  valuable  based  on  her  experi- 
ence in  housekeeping. 

Closets,  bins,  and  boxes  are  a  real  necessity.  Storage  does  not 
mean  unnecessary  hoarding;  it  means  definite  planning  as  to  bin, 
box,  or  closet,  and  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  contents  of 
each — a  place  for  everything.  One  of  the  signs  of  the  times  is  the 
definite  stand  housewives  are  taking  regarding  inadequate  storage 
space  both  in  city  and  in  country  houses,  and  the  demand  they  are 
making  that  shelves,  cupboards,  and  closets  be  thought  out  with 
the  utmost  care,  and  not  "  tucked  in  "  as  a  last  consideration.  Each 
available  space,  every  corner,  under  the  stairs,  and  even  panels,  may 
with  profit  be  utilized  for  storage. 

Rural  Home  and  Storage. — The  rural  home  usually  will  have 
more  commodious  storage  than  the  smaller  town  house,  because  the 
attic  is  a  feature  of  such  a  home ;  and  except  in  the  southern  section 
of  the  country,  a  cellar  will  usually  be  provided. 

Commercial  Storage. — In  city  homes  where  space  is  limited, 
storage  facilities  rented  from  commercial  storage  companies  are  an 
important  factor.  This  includes  the  fur  and  woollen  storage  which 
can  be  had  for  furs  at  a  cost  of  two  per  cent,  of  the  valuation.  For 
this  price,  the  storage  company  sends  for  the  goods,  cares  for  them 
during  the  season,  or  an  entire  year  if  desired,  and  returns  them 
on  order.  General  storage  is  sometimes  charged  for  by  the  cubic 
foot  of  space  occupied.  Furniture  storage  may  be  hired  at  so 
much  a  month  per  storage  room,  or  so  much  per  van  load ;  the  prices 
vary,  too,  according  to  the  security  of  the  warehouse,  higher  prices 
being  charged  for  storage  in  absolutely  fireproof  buildings.  The 
cost  of  placing  fire  insurance  upon  one's  goods  while  they  are  in 
storage  should  also  be  learned  in  advance  by  inquiry  of  an  insur- 
204 


STORAGE 


205 


ance  broker ;  the  saving  in  low  storage  rent  is  sometimes  more  than 
offset  by  a  high  rate  of  fire  insurance  upon  the  goods. 

Carpet  and  rug  storage  in  many  cities  is  a  specialty,  and  the 
storage  companies  also  clean  and  repair  the  floor  coverings  if  so 
ordered,  before  putting  them  into  storage. 

The  storage  of  silver  in  special  vaults  is  provided  by  certain 
banks  and  other  storage  companies,  while  valuable  papers  as  stocks 


NORTH 
FIG.  1 24 . — A  plan  for  an  ideal  cellar.    Courtesy  of  Charles  E .  White  and  Ladies  Home  Journal. 

| ' 

and  bonds,  and  jewelry,  are  cared  for  in  the  small  safe  deposit 
boxes  provided  by  banks,  at  from  $3  to  $10  a  year. 

CELLAR  OR   BASEMENT  STORAGE 

The  cellar  or  basement  is  the  place  most  often  chosen  for  the 
storage  of  food,  because  it  is  cool  and  away  from  the  light.  One 
problem  of  the  cellar  is  to  keep  it  dry;  its  drainage  will  depend 
upon  the  location  of  the  house  where  there  is  natural  drainage, 
and  upon  the  question  of  whether  there  is  a  good  concrete  floor.  The 
provision  of  several  small  windows  to  provide  cross  ventilation 


206 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  125. — Vegetable  and  fruit  stor- 
age. Courtesy  of  Charles  E.  White  and 
Ladies  Home  Journal. 


is  important.  If  a  part  of  the  cellar  used  as  a  food  room  has  but 
one  window,  ventilation  can  be  secured  by  dividing  the  window 
into  two  parts  and  by  building  an  air  flue  or  box  from  one  part 
of  the  window  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  cellar  floor,  thus  pro- 
viding for  a  current  of  air. 

If  the  cellar  is  divided  into  rooms  or  compartments  (Fig.  124), 
the  heating  apparatus,  together  with  the  bins  for  fuel  may  be 
partitioned  off  by  themselves,  to  keep  the  rest  of  the  cellar  clean, 

and  also  to  keep  the  heat  away 
from  the  food. 

Coal  and  wood  bins  should 
be  placed  in  close  relationship  to 
the  furnace  for  the  furnace  coal, 
and  to  the  cellar  stairs  for  kitchen 
coal  or  wood.  The  latter,  if  pos- 
sible, .should  be  stored  upstairs 
adjoining  the  kitchen.  The  cellar 
stairs  should  lead  directly  by  a 
well-lighted  passage  to  the  kitchen. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  housekeeper  and  the  coal  man,  the  coal 
bins  should  be  connected  by  good-sized  windows,  easily  opened,  to 
the  driveway.  Consider  the  convenience  of  this  before  deciding 
that  any  extra  cost  involved  is  too  great. 

Vegetable  bins  in  the  form  of  trays  with  wire  bottoms  are 
best,  because  the  vegetables  may  then  have  a  circulation  of  -air.  This 
will  prevent  their  "  sweating  "  and  molding  as  much  as  they  other- 
wise would.  These  bins  may  be  mounted  one  above  the  other  on 
uprights  (Fig.  125),  and  may  be  raised  from  the  floor  enough  to 
aid  ventilation,  and  to  permit  cleaning  beneath  them.  The  fronts 
of  these  bins  may  be  hinged  to  let  down,  and  in  that  way  it  is  easy 
to  empty  and  clean  them.  (See  also  Vegetable  Pits,  page  216.) 

Preserve  closets  should  be  in  a  cool,  dark,  dry  part  of  the 
cellar,  and  should  have  plenty  of  shelf  room.  The  shelves  should  be 
planned  by  reckoning  the  surface  area  required  for  so  many  jars 
and  glasses,  and  the  space  between  shelves  should  be  enough  to 
allow  for  height  of  jar  or  glass. 

It  is  told  by  a  large  canning  company  that  they  are  able  to  take 
account  of  stock  in  less  than  an  hour,  because  it  was  planned  that  the 
shelves  should  hold  so  many  rows  of  gallon,  quart,  or  pint  cans,  and 


STORAGE 


207 


each  row  should  be  so  many  cans  deep.  It  was  only  a  matter  of 
counting  and  multiplying.  In  this  method  rows  may  be  labelled 
rather  than  individual  cans.  Always  put  old  jars  in  front  to  be 
used  first. 

Swinging  shelves  are  the  old-fashioned  way  of  putting  food 
high  and  dry  for  safety.  They  are  especially  serviceable  where 
mice  are  troublesome. 

Trunk  Storage. — Housekeepers  differ  as  to  the  best  place  for 
trunk  storage,  cellar  or  attic.  It  matters  not,  so  long  as  the  place 
is  dry  and  clean,  as  well  as  con- 
venient to  reach.  If  possible, 
choose  a  place  away  from  all  pipes, 
so  no  sudden  leak  will  endanger 
the  trunks.  A  rack  or  platform  of 
wood  (Fig.  126)  under  the  trunk 
in  a  basement  ensures  dryness, 
and  a  dust  cover  of  paper,  bed  tick- 
ing, or  unbleached  muslin  is  worth 
providing. 

The  garret  or  attic  is  a  storage 
place  of  practical  importance.  As 
to  the  holding-over  of  discarded 
clothing,  furniture,  and  various 
other  movable  property,  there  is  argument  for  and  against.  Furni- 
ture and  clothing  may  later  be  utilized,  in  some  emergency,  but  it 
is  not  wise  to  store  so  much  that  it  amounts  to  hoarding.  The 
general  principle  that  should  control  the  accumulation  of  discarded 
things  would  seem  to  be  to  save  nothing  unless  it  seems  at  the 
time  to  have  possibilities  of  later  use,  and  to  keep  things  of  a  kind 
together  in  attic  storage.  The  attic  will  also  in  many  houses  be 
the  place  of  seasonal  storage  of  things  in  current  use;  where  sum- 
mer things  are  put  away  over  the  winter,  and  vice  versa;  such  storage 
is  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  chapter. 

LAUNDRY  STORAGE 

A  clothes  chute  of  metal  may  lead  down  from  all  floors  to  the 
basement  and  terminate  there  in  a  bin,  closet,  or  wire  cage.  This 
should  be  planned  to  empty  in  or  near  the  laundry,  und  have 
sufficient  capacity  to  hold  the  week's  soiled  clothes.  Hampers 


FIG.  126. — Trunk  and  bag  storage. 
Courtesy  of  Charles  E.  White  and  Ladies 
Home  Journal 


208 


HOUSEWIFERY 


and  baskets  throughout  the  house  are  not  necessary  with  these 
conditions.  This  clothes  bin  or  closet  may  be  of  metal  or  of  papier 
mache.  The  clothes  container  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute  may  be 

enamelled  or  painted  at  such 
intervals  of  time  as  to  insure  its 
being  clean  and  not  rusting  or 
mildewing. 

Laundry  Closet.  —  The 
closet  in  the  laundry  is  best 
divided  into  two  large  com- 
partments, so  that  one-half  may 
be  arranged  with  shelves  and 
the  other  half  divided  to  have 
a  place  for  all  large  equipment, 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain  out 
in  the  room,  becomes  dusty. 
Available  space  will  help  de- 
cide whether  this  storage  should 
be  built  as  a  single  closet  with 
a  division  into  two  parts,  or 
whether  ironing  equipment 
shall  be  kept  in  one  closet  in  one 
part  of  the  room,  and  washing 
equipment  in  another.  This 
latter  idea  will  appeal  to  the 
housewife  whose  efficiency  study 
has  proved  to  her  that  each  tool 
is  best  stored  near  its  working 
center. 

A  laundry  closet  (Figs.  127 
and  128),  whether  divided  or 
not,  should  be  high  enough  to 

and    the 


FIQ.  127.—  One    section  t  laundry    equipment 

curtain  frame,  deep  and  broad 

enough  to  take  the  boiler  placed  on  end,  besides  the  clothes 
basket,  and  a  wringer  if  a  hand-operated  one  is  used.  Neither 
the  basket  nor  wringer  are  tools  ready  for  service  if  they  have 
stood  in  an  open  room  all  week.  It  is  better  to  shelve  the 
other  section  to  hold  the  stain-removing  outfit,  such  as  bottles, 
droppers,  a  small  bowl,  and  the  jars  of  salt,  paraffin,  starch,  and 


STORAGE 


209 


borax.  Other  shelves  make  possible  a  grouping  of  soaps,  soda,  and 
kerosene  on  one  shelf,  and  starch  kettle,  strainer  and  stirring  spoons 
on  another.  On  a  lower  shelf  may  be  kept  the  irons  and  iron 
racks.  A  drawer  may  be  planned  to  hold  ironing-board  covers, 
felts  and  cheesecloth.  The  shelved  compartment  need  not  be  so 
deep  as  the  other,  in  fact,  is  better  just  deep  enough  to  hold  the 
largest  starch  cooker  or  bowl. 


/W£ftS  Stiff.  //MMS 


CLOTtffS  P/M  B/IG 


/ROMM6  BOARD 


WW/V6&? 


Fia.  128. — A  laundry  closet  for  the  small  home  laundry. 

For    Laundry    Closet    Equipment,    see    Laundry    Equipment, 
page  104. 

KITCHEN  STORAGE 

Kitchen  and  Pantry  Closets. — They  are  alike  in  general  de- 
sign. Usually  they  are  divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  section, 
so  as  to  divide  the  heavier  utensils  such  as  heavy  kettles  and  boilers 
from  the  lighter  pans  and  bowls  (Fig.  129) .  Shelves  half  as  wide  as 
the  closet  is  deep  are  best  in  these  lower  compartments.  Special 
14 


210 


HOUSEWIFERY 


cupboards  should  be  built  large  enough  to  hold  barrels  of  sugar  and 
of  flour.  The  top  of  these  cupboards  opens  on  a  hinge,  as  well  as 
the  side,  so  as  to  make  the  top  of  the  barrel  easily  reached  without 
drawing  out  the  barrel ;  barrel  swivels  on  which  to  swing  the  barrels 


r;. 


•»****•• 


FIG.  129. — Good  type  of  kitchen  closet. 

may  be  put  into  these  closets.  Such  cupboards  are  usually  made 
of  wood,  of  course,  but  one  may  now  secure  an  all-metal  closet  ( Fig. 
129),  which  may  be  purchased  in  sections  of  white  enamelled  metal. 
Glass  doors  to  the  upper  part  of  cupboards  ensure  a  light,  clean 
cupboard  which  is  as  open  as  open  shelving,  without  having  the  dust. 
In  narrow  quarters  it  is  better  to  have  the  closet  doors  slide. 


STORAGE 


211 


The  shelving  should  be  planned  to  be  within  reach.  This  is 
possible  if  the  housekeeper  is  careful  to  plan  less  waste  of  space 
on  the  so-called  counter  of  the  cupboard  and  less  unused  space  be- 
tween the  shelves.  A  slanting  roof  to  the  closet  is  much  more  easily 
cleaned  than  the  usual  flat  top. 

About  the  sink  by  means  of  small  shelves  are  best  stored  the  dish- 
washing and  sink-cleaning 
necessities.  One  or  two  nar- 
row shelves  directly  over  the 
sink  provide  a  place  near  at 
hand  for  the  scouring  pow- 
der, the  knife-cleaning  ma- 
terial, a  small  jar  of  dis- 
solved washing  soda,  a  jar 
with  soap  scraps  soaking  in 
Avater  to  be  used  in  dish 
washing,  a  cork  for  rubbing 
knives,  and  a  silver  cleaner. 
From  the  shelf  may  hang  the 
soap  shaker,  the  dish  drainer, 
and  perhaps  the  dishmop 
and  bottle  washer.  On  a 
hook  under  the  drain-board 
may  hang  the  dishpan  and  WOOD  FELT' 

SHEATH/NG 


EMAMEL 


WOOD 

I     EXTEWOR 
WATER  PftOOF 


FIG.   130. — A  sectional  view  of  one  wall  of 
a  refrigerator. 


the  draining  rack.     If  space 

is  limited,  a  case  of  drawers 

may    be    built    under    the 

draining  board,  on  either  or 

both  sides.     This   in  no  way   closes  in  the   plumbing,   for   these 

drawers  may  be  on  rollers,  so  as  to  be  pulled  out  easily.     If  these 

drawers  are  shallow,  they  give  classified  storage  space  for  towels, 

aprons,  and  cloths. 

FOOD  STORAGE 

Food  storage  involves  refrigeration,  preservation  from  the  air 
by  canning,  preserving  by  cellar  or  dug-outs,  and  also  food  containers 
for  storage  of  current  food  supplies. 

Refrigeration  represents  means  of  storage  for  food  at  a  low 
temperature  of  about  45°-55°  F.  in  an  ice-box  or  refrigerator. 
In  order  that  the  refrigerator  may  be  kept  at  a  more  or  less  even 


212 


HOUSEWIFERY 


temperature,  it  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  entrance 
through  the  walls  of  any  heat  from  the  outside.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  non-conducting  materials  (Fig.  130)  placed 
in  layers  with  air  spaces  between.  The  efficiency  of  the  refrigerator 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  perfection  of  this  insulation. 

Various  conditions  influence  the  possibility  of  not  maintaining 
the  temperature  noted  above,  such  as  storing  in  a  damp  cellar, 


FIG.  131. — Diagram  showing  the  circulation  of  air  in  two  usual  types  of  refrigerators. 
Air  entering  the  ice  chamber  is  cooled,  and  sinks  through  the  bottom  openings,  drawing 
in  the  warmer  air  at  the  top.  Butter,  milk,  and  meats  should  occupy  the  cooler  space, 
while  food  having  a  strong  odor  should  be  placed  where  the  air  is  just  about  to  enter  the  ice 
chamber. 

exposure  on  an  outside  porch,  putting  in  hot  foods,  and  too  frequent 
opening  of  the  refrigerator,  it  being  found  that  each  time  the  door 
is  opened,  the  temperature  increases  1°  to  3°.  Someone  has  aptly 
said,  "  Do  not  open  the  door  and  camp  out  before  the  refrigerator 
while  planning  the  next  meal.  It  might  be  more  costly  than  to  lose 
the  left-overs."  In  a  refrigerator  large  enough  for  a  family  of  four 
or  five,  the  ice  capacity  should  be  60  to  75  pounds.  The  refrigerator 
temperature  is  higher  than  cold  storage,  which  is  at  34°  F.  and  a 
refrigerator,  therefore,  is  not  capable  of  keeping  food  for  as  long  a 
time  as  cold  storage. 


STORAGE 


213 


Three  conditions  control  economic  preservation  by  refrigeration : 
low  temperature,  ventilation,  and  dryness.  Low  temperature  can 
readily  be  secured  by  the  melting  of  the  ice  in  the  refrigerator; 


FIG.  132. — Refrigerator  showing  good  interior  arrangement. 

ventilation  is  accomplished  by  the  construction  of  the  refrigerator, 
so  that  it  will  allow  circulating  spaces  for  warm  and  cool  air  (Fig. 
131)  ;  the  dryness  depends  upon  rapid  change  of  air  in  the  ice-box, 
good  drainage  to  carry  away  the  ice  when  melted  into  water,  and  no 
covering  of  the  ice  by  wet  cloths  or  papers. 


214  HOUSEWIFERY 

The  proper  construction  of  the  refrigerator  helps  in  its  care. 
The  best  types  keep  the  ice  separate  from  the  food,  and  subdivide 
the  food  compartment  so  that  foods  such  as  eggs,  inilk  and  butter, 
more  sensitive  to  odors,  may  be  kept  by  themselves  (Fig.  132). 

The  interior  construction  of  the  box  may  be  of  wood,  galvanized 
iron,  enamel,  or  porcelain,  but  whatever  it  is,  it  should  be  smooth, 
free  from  cracks,  made  of  material  impervious  to  moisture  and  odors, 
and  easily  cleaned.  For  general  efficiency  the  racks  shoulcl  be  made 
of  tubes  or  wire,  so  smooth  as  to  be  easily  cleaned,  so  close  together 
that  there  is  little  chance  for  tipping  and  spilling  of  dishes. 

The  hardware  of  the  refrigerator,  especially  the  door  latches, 
should  be  of  the  best  quality,  but  more  important  is  the  tightness 
with  which  the  doors  fit.  They  should  be  so  tight  that  not  even  a 
thin  calling  card  could  be  slipped  inside  a  door  when  the  door  is 
fastened.  The  wooden  refrigerators  are  cheaper  and  serviceable, 
but  the  metal  lined  ones  are  more  easily  cared  for,  as  the  metal 
naturally  resists  moisture  and  odors.  The  enamel  refrigerator  is  a 
luxury,  not  a  necessity,  and  without  care  will  be  no  cleaner  than 
the  cheaper  kind. 

The  drains  should  be  open  and  easily  cleaned.  Be  sure  that 
the  "  elbow  "  and  bends  in  the  drain  pipes  are  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  cleaned  with  a  brush,  or  removed  and  scrubbed  in  cleaning. 
The  refrigerator  may  be  connected  to  the  house  drain  by  putting 
in  a  water  trap.  This  is  necessary  to  avoid  any  inflow  of  sewer 
gas.  The  refrigerator,  even  then,  is  not  connected  by  a  continuous 
pipe  into  the  sewer,  but  drips  into  a  metal  lined  open  cup  or  box 
which  is  in  turn  connected  with  the  sewer  pipe.  If  such  a  connec- 
tion cannot  be  arranged,  a  drip  pan  under  the  refrigerator  is  safer 
to  use.  For  ease  and  cleanliness  a  door  is  often  built  in  the  back 
of  the  ice  compartment,  so  that  the  ice  may  be  put  in  through  a 
window  or  small  door  from  the  outside  wall  of  the  house  or  porch. 

To  clean  refrigerator,  see  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Care, page  2G9. 

On  the  farm,  where  there  is  an  icehouse,  the  reserve  supply  of 
perishable  foods  can  sometimes  be  stored  in  the  ice  house. 

The  "  iceless  refrigerator"  (Fig.  133),  convenient  for  the  farm- 
house or  other  detached  houses,  depends  for  its  cool  temperature 
upon  the  evaporation  of  water  in  moistened  curtains  hung  about  a 
food  closet  made  of  wire  netting.  The  curtains,  made  of  canton 
flannel,  button  tight  about  the  food  cage ;  they  are  kept  moist  by 


STORAGE 


215 


keeping  prolongations  of  their  lower  ends  in  a  pail  of  water.     Such 
an  iceless  box  will  keep  milk  and  butter  cool. 

Refrigerator  Dishes. — Much  room  is  wasted  in  refrigerators 
by  not  having  small  compact  food  containers  for  the  left-overs. 
Wide-topped  flaring  bowls,  for  example,  represent  great  waste  of 
space  because,  while  they  may  have  a  small  base,  they  project  at  the 
top  far  enough  to  prevent  anything  else  standing  beside  them. 


FIG.  133. — Iceless  refrigerator. 

Half -pint  and  pint  fruit  jars,  and  small  straight-sided  bowls,  make 
good  containers  without  costing  much  money.  These  containers  also 
protect  finer  dishes,  which  should  not  be  in  the  refrigerator,  because 
of  the  likelihood  of  their  being  chipped.  Wide-mouthed  fruit  jars 
are  especially  suitable  for  storing  washed  lettuce,  because  the  top 
can  be  screwed  on  tight  and  the  jar  laid  directly  on  the  ice.  A  few 
covered  containers  should  be  purchased  to  take  such  things  as  left- 
over fish,  cabbage,  onions,  and  other  strong  smelling  fish.  Glass- 
covered  butter  containers  insure  the  butter  being  kept  in  a  sweet 
condition,  because  the  glass  is  non-absorbing  and  easily  cleaned. 


216 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Window  food  boxes  serve  as  a  substitute  for  a  refrigerator, 
and  can  be  used  satisfactorily  about  eight  months  in  the  year  in  a 
large  part  of  the  United  States.  In  building  a  house,  it  is  well 
to  provide  a  cool  box  built  on  the  outside  wall  of  the  house,  with 
a  refrigerator  door  opening  directly  into  the  kitchen  through  the 
kitchen  wall.  (See  chapter  on  Equipment,  page  99.) 

Food  pits,  dug-outs  or  caves  where  food,  mostly  vegetable, 
is  buried  for  storage,  furnish  often  in  rural  communities  the  most 


FIG.  134. — Various  types  of  containers  for  the  house.  1,  soiled  clothes  box,  papier 
mach6;  2,  soiled  clothes  bag,  paper;  3,  bread  box;  4  and  5,  garbage;  6,  waste  basket,  papier 
mach6;  7,  wooden  flour  bin;  8,  ground  glass-stoppered  bottle;  9,  porcelain  flour  jar;  10,  glass 
flour  jar. 

feasible  way  to  stow  away  large  supplies.  A  straw  or  corn  husk 
covering  put  over  the  top  of  the  cave  will  prevent  freezing.  To 
open,  one  must  remove  the  top  covering  and  dig  down  to  the  food. 
It  is  operated  in  the  best  fashion  when  the  food  contents  are  not 
exposed  too  often,  therefore  the  housekeeper  should  take  out  enough 
celery,  turnips,  etc.,  for  perhaps  a  week's  supply. 

Food  Containers. — As  the  study  of  housekeeping  advances, 
merchants  are  meeting  the  varied  demands  for  various  food  con- 
tainers (Fig.  134).  The  housekeeper's  demand  to-day  is  that  food 
containers  be  non-absorbent  of  both  odors  and  grease;  that  they 
be  easily  handled ;  often  that  they  be  attractive  in  order  to  help  make 


STORAGE  217 

the  kitchen  one  of  the  most  attractive  rooms  of  the  house.  The 
housekeeper  may  even  plan  her  kitchen  with  a  color  scheme,  in  which 
the  containers  may  match  in  color  the  tiling,  paint,  and  linoleum. 
If  glass  containers  are  used,  the  labels  which  are  pasted  on  often 
introduce  the  color. 

Tin. — Tin  containers,  painted  or  japanned,  are  the  cheapest 
quality,  but  there  is  a  range  of  prices  even  in  these.  Tin  is  light  in 
weight  but  has  two  disadvantages,  in  that  moisture  is  likely  to 
rust  the  tin,  and  that  it  is  not  possible  to  see  the  amount  of  the 
contents.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  this  may  amount  to  consider- 
able loss  in  time  and  in  energy. 

Earthen  or  Crockery. — Earthen  or  crockery  food  containers  are 
the  best  looking  on  the  market  to-day,  some  of  them  having  the 
same  attractive  decoration  as  dishes.  They  are  easily  cleaned  and 
the  uniformity  of  sets  makes  them  attractive.  They  are  expensive, 
breakable,  and  also  hide  the  contents. 

Glass. — Glass  is  perhaps  the  most  sanitary  material  for  food 
containers.  It  is  obtainable  in  various  sizes,  prices,  and  shapes,  is 
non-absorbent,  and  is  particularly  useful  because  it  shows  the  con- 
tents. Some  of  the  jars  and  bottles,  especially  those  for  the  medicine 
case,  will  be  found  with  the  names  etched  into  the  glass.  Black 
paint  lettering,  or  labels  which  are  shellaced  on,  are  very  helpful. 

Canning  and  Preserving  Containers. — Earthenware  jars  and 
crocks,  and  glass  preserving  jars,  bottles,  and  glasses,  are  used  for 
the  storage  of  canned,  preserved,  salted,  pickled,  or  dried  foods. 
Paper  and  tin  can  containers  are  used  increasingly  in  the  private 
household.  Large  wooden  containers  may  be  used  for  pickling. 
Fruit  jars  should  be  examined  for  clearness  and  freedom  from  any 
dimming,  since  cheap  glass  products  of  this  kind  are  not  always 
insoluble.  Fruit  juices  may  leach  out  from  inferior  glass  enough 
alkali  to  interfere  with  the  preservation  of  the  canned  material; 
this  may  account  for  some  otherwise  mysterious  spoiling  of  canned 
fruit. 

In  canning  or  preserving,  the  principle  is  to  store  away  the  food 
where  it  will  be  free  from  bacterial  action.  To  accomplish  this,  the 
food  is  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and  held  at  that  temperature 
until  all  the  bacteria  and  their  spores  (egg  cells)  are  killed,  and  then 
it  is  put  into  hot  sterile  jars  or  bottles.  The  jar  or  container  is  then 
made  air-tight.  With  glass  jars  this  is  done  by  having  tight-fitting 


218  HOUSEWIFERY 

covers  which  fasten  down  with  a  screw  or  lever  fastener,  and  are 
made  tighter  by  using  new  rubber  rings  for  seals.  A  jar  from  which 
the  liquid  leaks  out  will  leak  air  and  let  bacteria  in.  'With  tin 
containers,  the  cap  is  soldered  or  sealed  tight.  The  sealing  wax  used 
for  catsup  bottles  may  be  used  for  cans. 

Containers  for  jellies  and  preserves  are  not  made  air  tight, 
but  are  sealed  with  paraffin  to  keep  mold  from  forming.  This  use 
of  paraffin  is  satisfactory,  and  is  all  that  is  necessary,  as  the  large 
amount  of  sugar  used  in  the  preserving  makes  the  growth  of  bacteria 
impossible.  Salting  and  pickling  preserves  the  food  without  any  seal- 
ing other  than  to  keep  the  mold  away.  Bacteria  do  not  grow  in  a 
salt  medium. 

Wash  and  wipe  dry  all  empty  glass  jars  and  covers  before  putting 
away;  fit  covers  to  the  jars,  and  put  them  away  together,  so  as  to 
save  time  in  the  canning  season.  Old  rubbers  often  become  soft 
and  stretchy,  and  are  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  fruit  spoiling. 
Always  use  new  ones  or  tested  old  ones.  To  test,  press  the  ring  of 
rubber  into  a  fold,  then  reverse  fold  in  exactly  the  same  place.  A 
good  ring  will  not  crack. 

To  reduce  the  expense  of  purchasing  containers,  dry  as  much 
food  as  possible. 

Stone  jars  or  crocks  are  used  for  storing  eggs  in  water  glass 
or  liquid  sodium  silicate.  The  eggs  must  be  clean,  but  unwashed. 
Water  glass  is  purchased  in  pound  bottles  as  a  syrupy  liquid,  and 
used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  liquid  glass  to  ten  quarts 
of  cooled  boiled  water,  which  is  poured  over  the  eggs. 

GARBAGE  STORAGE 

Garbage  Containers. — Garbage  containers  should  be  water- 
tight, vermin-proof,  and  have  such  tight-fitting  covers  that  it  is 
impossible  for  dogs  and  cats  to  push  them  off.  In  the  winter  it  is 
desirable  to  keep  the  contents  from  freezing ;  for  this  reason,  wooden 
pails  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  will  never  be  proof  against  leaking 
or  freezing,  and  have  many  disadvantages.  Heavy  galvanized  pails 
are  the  most  common,,  and,  fitted  with  tight  covers,  are  serviceable. 

Enamelled  pails  make  the  best  indoor  garbage  cans,  as  they  are 
easily  cleaned,  and  are  more  sightly  if  kept  in  the  kitchen ;  but  as 
they  chip  easily  they  are  not  suited  to  hard  outdoor  service.  Some 
of  the  more  modern  enamelled  waste  containers  are  made  with  a  foot 


STORAGE 


219 


lever  which  will  raise  the  cover,  leaving  the  hands  free  to  empty  the 

garbage.      These    containers   were   first   made    for   hospital   waste 

receivers,  but  they  are  especially  good  in  the  small  kitchen,  where 

the  housewife  does  her  own  work.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  pail 

for  the  house,  because  it  will 

eliminate    much    wasted    time 

and  effort   in  walking  to   the 

back  porch  or  to  the  back  gate 

with  every  little  bit  of  waste. 

It  is  unsanitary  to  keep  waste 

in  an  uncovered  pan,  waiting  to 

be  emptied,  as  such  storage  of 

garbage  is  apt  to  draw  house- 

hold pests,  such  as  flies,  ants, 

and  roaches.    By  way  of  disin- 

fecting the  garbage,  or  attempt- 

ing to  make  it  distasteful  to 

vermin,  several  of  the  cans  are 

made  with  sifters  in  their  lids. 

The  disinfectant  or  insecticide 

is  put  into  the  cover,  and  the 

jar   of   putting   on   the    cover 

shakes  out  a  little  powder  on 

to  the  contents  of  the  can.     It 

is  a  better  principle  to  keep  the 

pan.  clean,  and  empty  the  con- 

tents often. 

One  type   of  garbage   con- 

tainer Which  is  non-freezing  in 

ordinary  weather  and  proof 
against  animals  is  set  into  the  ground  (Fig.  135).  A  cement  well 
is  built  to  receive  the  garbage  container.  A  foot  lever  raises  the 
cover  of  the  well  and  a  bail  handle  attached  to  the  vessel  is  always 
on  the  outside  of  the  pail,  making  it  possible  to  lift  the  container  to 
empty  without  any  contact  with  the  garbage. 

Garbage;  bags  are  made  for  garbage  containers.  For  the  house- 
wife who  is  doing  light  housekeeping  and  has  only  a  little  waste  this 
will  be  satisfactory.  The  bags  are  of  somewhat  the  same  material 
as  those  for  paper  bag  cookery  and  for  laundry  bags  in  hotels.  They 


135._Underground   garbage    container. 


220 


HOUSEWIFERY 


may  oe  bought  by  the  hundred  or  gross.  Eacks  may  be  purchased 
to  hold  the  bag  in  place  in  the  sink,  and  as  the  bag  is  made  with 
holes  the  water  drains  off  into  the  sink.  The  bag  and  contents  are 

disposed  of  together.  Cut 
circles  of  paper  put  into  the 
garbage  cans  are  of  great 
advantage;  or  a  newspaper 
opened  out  and  put  in  with- 
out cutting  often  serves  the 
purpose.  They  keep  the  can 
so  that  its  cleaning  amounts 
to  very  little. 

Incinerators  represent  a 
modern  way  of  disposing  of 
household  garbage.  A  small 
incinerator  was  first  made 
which  fitted  into  a  stove 
pipe.  The  plan  was  that  the 
hot  air  as  it  passed  up 
through  the  flue  would  slowly 
evaporate  the  moisture  from 
the  waste,  the  housekeeper 
being  careful  to  have  the 
least  possible  amount  of 
moisture  because  of  its  great 
hindrance  in  carbonizing  the 
garbage.  After  the  garbage 
slowly  dried,  it  charred,  and 
then  could  be  used  as  fuel. 

Incinerators  are  built  in 
large  institutions,  or  may  be 
bought  ready  to  set  up  like 
a  stove  in  the  kitchen  of 
small  houses  or  apartments 
(Fig.  136).  The  most  effi- 
cient types  burn,  without 

odor  and  without  smoke,  a  quantity  of  garbage  at  one  time.  Gas  is 
considered  the  best  fuel  because  of  creating  very  intense  heat.  A 
common  size  of  incinerator  has  a  bushel  capacity,  and  as  they  burn 


Fio.    136. — One  type  of  incinerator. 


STORAGE  221 

a  quart  or  a  bushel,  one  burning  of  garbage  per  day  is  all  that  is 
necessary.  The  incinerator  in  the  kitchen  is  a  garbage  container 
as  well  as  a  garbage  burner. 

In  places  where  the  collection  and  utilization  of  garbage  pre- 
sents a  difficulty,  the  incinerator  is  a  proved  solution.  Its  purchas- 
ing cost  for  the  smaller  home  ranges  from  $60.00  to  $75.00;  its 
maintenance  is  not  a  large  expense. 

Garbage  Utilization. — In  rural  or  urban  districts,  the  garbage 
is  often  collected  to  be  used  as  food  for  the  pigs.  This  method, 
under  sanitary  control,  is  one  of  the  best  for  garbage  disposal. 
Sufficient  stress,  too,  has  not  been  laid  on  the  value  of  garbage  as  a 
fertilizer  for  the  garden.  If  it  is  emptied  into  a  pit,  covered  with  a 
thin  coating  of  lime,  and  the  whole  left  buried  for  two  or  three 
months,  it  becomes  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  the  garden.  The 
saving  of  fat,  either  by  the  individual  housewife,  or  its  recovery 
from  garbage  by  the  community,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
national  economy. 

SPECIAL  STORAGE  CLOSETS 

Broom  and  Cleaning  Closets. — To  plan  for  building  a  broom 
closet,  arrange  the  things  as  they  are  to  be  stored  when  the  closet  is 
finished.  Measure,  and  literally  build  the  closet  around  them. 
The  result  will  be  that  brooms  and  brushes  with  long  handles  will 
have  a  place  to  hang,  shelves  will  be  a  proper  distance  apart  to  hold 
the  jars,  boxes  and  bottles.  There  will  be  a  hook  for  every  brush, 
the  shelves  and  hooks  will  be  labelled,  and  a  drawer  or  two  may  be 
planned  for  clean  cloths.  The  closet  ought  to  be  just  deep  enough 
to  take  the  sweeper  or  vacuum  cleaner,  because  a  deep  closet  is  less 
likely  to  be  kept  in  good  order,  with  its  contents  classified. 

Broom  closets  should  be  high  and  narrow,  and  cleaning  closets 
should  have  shelves  and  hooks.  If  the  space  makes  it  desirable, 
these  two  closets  may  be  arranged  separately.  The  idea  is  to  have 
a  special  place  for  the  various  kinds  of  equipment  so  essential  to  good 
cleaning,  and  so  unsightly  when  standing  about.  Besides,  the 
cleaning  outfit  is  not  suitable  to  be  put  in  with  other  things. 

Plan  such  a  broom  and  cleaning  closet  (Fig.  137)  on  each  floor 
for  a  new  house,  even  if  some  of  the  closets  are  small.  The  larger 
closet  will  store  those  solutions,  cloths,  and  brushes  not  needed  every 
day.  In  old  houses  where  such  a  closet  was  not  planned  in  the 


222 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  137. — An  old  wardrobe  converted  into  a  housekeeping  closet.     Courtesy  of  Cornell 

University. 

building,  old  wardrobes  may  be  used,  painting  them  inside  with 
white  enamel  paint  to  make  them  easily  cleaned.  White  enamel 
sectional  closets  may  be  purchased  for  broom  and  brush  closets. 
Such  storage  facilities  may  be  purchased  from  kitchen  cabinet 
makers. 

Linen   Closets. — Linen   closets   should   be   planned   with   the 


STORAGE 


223 


general  idea  of  being  able  to  classify  and  to  organize  the  different 
sizes  of  sheets  and  pillow  slips,,  and  to  have  a  place  for  towels  and 
spreads,  in  fact,  a  compartment  for  every  class  of  household  linen. 
It  will  be  a  help  to  list  the  various  things,  and  then  divide  and  space 
the  shelves  to  hold  each  kind  of  linen. 

In  some  houses,  the  housewife  sees  fit  to  combine  linen  storage 
with  a  sewing  and  mending 
room.  This  is  especially  de- 
sirable when  the  family  is  large. 
A  bin  or  drawer,  or  better,  sev- 
eral drawers  permitting  classi- 
fication of  the  material  waiting 
to  be  mended,  is  a  help. 

As  the  linen  closet  needs 
to  be  especially  free  from  dust, 
it  should  have  either  a  tight- 
fitting  door  of  its  own,  or  better 
still,  should  have  some  cover 
provided  for  the  shelves.  As 
piles  of  the  linen  material  are 
heavy  to  lift,  the  shelves  may 
have  drop  fronts  (Figs.  138  and 
139),  that  is,  fronts  hinged  so 
that  they  drop  down  when 
opened,  which  will  give  the 
cleanliness  of  drawers  with  the 
convenience  of  shelves.  These 
shelves  make  it  easier  for  the 
housekeeper  to  take  account  of 
stock. 

There  is  quite  a  difference 
of  opinion  among  housekeepers 
as  to  whether  the  stock  of 

supplies  be  used  in  rotation,  by  always  drawing  from  the  bottom 
and  putting  the  clean  on  top,  or  whether  a  set  of  three  or  four 
of  each  type  of  linen  be  in  constant  use  until  worn  out.  On  the 
whole,  the  former  seems  more  desirable,  as  some  fabrics  deteriorate 
with  age. 

Medicine  Closets. — It  would  seem  wiser  if  the  housekeeper 
could  plan  her  medicine  closet  for  some  part  of  the  house  other 


FIG.  138. — Linen  closet.  Drop  fronts 
acting  as  shelves — more  efficient  than  drawers, 
as  they  keep  the  linen  equally  clean,  and  it  is 
more  easily  sorted  and  counted. 


224 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  139. — Linen  closet  with  good  arrangement  of  drawers  and  shelves — very  suitable  for 

a  hall. 

than  the  bathroom.  A  good  place  is  a  shallow  closet  off  the  hall 
near  the  housekeeper's  room.  Here  it  is  of  service  to  all,  without 
the  disadvantage  of  being  in  the  bathroom.  It  helps  also  to  put 
medicines  in  a  special  place,  so  that  there  is  less  likelihood  of  run- 
ning the  risk  of  using  lotions  for  medicines  and  vice  versa. 

For  the  medicine  case,  a  shallow  closet  with  narrow  shelves  is 
desirable,  so  that  the  medicine  case  can  be  like  the  apothecary's 


STORAGE 


225 


shop  with  single  rows  of  bottles  (Fig.  140),  each  with  its  label 
in  sight.  As  many  medicines  keep  best  in  the  dark,  the  door  of  this 
closet  should  have  a  mirror  or  wood  panel  rather  than  plain  glass. 

Some  housekeepers  think  it  wise  to  get  a  set  of  standard  drug- 
gists7 display  bottles,  small  and  larger  sizes,  with  glass  stoppers 
and  permanent  etched  labels,  and  keep  medicines  in  them.  They 
give  a  very  attractive  appear- 
ance to  the  closet.  It  is  wise  to 
keep  poisons  like  carbolic  acid 
on  a  shelf  by  themselves  in 
bottles  of  an  unusual  shape, 
or  with  a  rough  outside  finish, 
so  that  if  one  went  to  the  closet 
in  the  dark,  attention  would  be 
instantly  attracted.  Also  have 
a  shelf  for  prescription  bottles 
which  may  accumulate  in  large 
families;  they  should  not  be 
kept  indefinitely. 

In  houses  where  no  pro- 
vision was  made  for  a  medicine 
closet,  either  wooden  or  metal 
closets  may  be  purchased. 
These  can  be  screwed  to  the 
wall,  and  will  give  good  service. 

Emergency  cases  or  kits  are  prepared  by  being  fitted  out  with 
bandages,  gauze,  scissors,  tweezers,  and  the  various  needs  for  emer- 
gencies. They  range  in  size  and  corresponding  cost  from  small 
pocket  cases  to  wall  closets  of  the  medicine  closet  size  and  efficiency. 

LIST  OF  MEDICAL  EQUIPMENT  AND  SUPPLIES 


FIG.   140. — A  medicine  closet. 


Equipment : 

Absorbent  cotton 
Atomizer 
Bandages — 2  sizes 

1-inch 

3-inch 

Clinical  thermometer 
Corks — new;  different  sizes 
Eye  cup 

Empty  clean  bottle 
Gauge 

Hot-water  bag 
Icebag 

15 


Graduated  glass 

teaspoons 

ounces 

Medicine  dropper 
Medicine   glass 
Nasal  douche 
Old  linen 

Piece  of  clean  flannel 
Safety  pins — 2  sizes 
Surgeon's  plaster 
Syringe 
Tweezers 


226 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Supplies: 
Arnica 

Aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia 
Bicarbonate  of  soda 
Boracic  acid 
Camphor 
Carbolic  acid 
Cold  cream 
Collodion 
Glycerine 
Hydrogen  peroxide 
Iodine 


Laxative  tablets 

Listerine 

Menthol  tube 

Oil  of  peppermint 

Preparation  for  burns 

Quinine 

Salt — Epsom  or  Rochelle 

Smelling  salts 

Turpentine 

Vaseline 

Witch  hazel 

Zinc  ointment 


Bathroom,  Closet  and  Equipment. — The  bathroom  should  be 
complete  in  its  furnishings,  and  to  make  it  so,  there  should  be 
plenty  of  racks  for  towels;  hooks  for  clothing;  holders  for  glasses, 
sponge,  tooth  brushes  and  soap ;  a  glass  shelf ;  and  a  mirror.  Be- 
sides these,  a  tub  seat  for  a  foot  bath ;  a  stool  low  enough  to  be  used 
as  a  slipper  chair;  and  a  rug  which  is  easily  cleaned,  not  injured 
by  water,  and  comfortable  for  the  bare  feet,  add  comfort  and  con- 
venience. A  crash  bath  mat  or  a  cork  mat  to  be  used  just  when 
stepping  from  the  bath  will  keep  the  rug  in  better  condition. 

Bathroom  Closet. — If  the  medicine  closet  is  placed  in  some 
other  part  of  the  house,  the  bathroom  closet  may  then  be  shelved 
and  divided  more  as  a  toilet  closet  ready  to  hold  such  toilet  articles 
as  soaps,  tooth  pastes,  extra  toilet  paper,  towels  and  wash  cloths. 
There  could  be  a  small  compartment  for  nasal  and  eye  douches, 
and  perhaps  a  shelf  for  various  washes  such  as  listerine,  peroxide, 
and  the  usual  home  remedies  which  all  the  family  use.  Tooth, 
brushes  are  better  in  the  air,  so  put  the  holders  outside  of  the  closed 
closet. 


Equipment : 

Bath  brush 
Bath  mat 
Bathtub  brush 
Clothes  brush 
Dental  floss. 
Drinking  glasses 
Flush-closet  cleaner 
Hand  brush 
Matches 
Nail  brush 
Scissors 

Scrubbing  brush 
Shaving  outfit 

razor 

strop 


Shoe  dressing 
Shoe  polish  pad 
Soap  rack 
Sponge 
Sponge  rack 
Surgeon's  plaster 
Toilet  paper 
Tooth  brushes 
Towels 

bath 

hand 
Wash  cloths 


STORAGE  227 

Supplies: 

Alcohol  Pumice 

Bay  rum  Scouring  powder 

Bicarbonate  of  soda  Shaving  cream  or  soap 

Cold  cream  Soap 

Bair  tonic  Soap  powder 

Hand  lotion  Toilet  ammonia 

Hydrogen  peroxide  Toilet  water 

Iodine  Talcum  powder 

Listerine  Tooth  wash 

Porcella  or  whiting  Witch  hazel 

Shoe-cleaning  Outfit. — Cleaning  of  shoes  is  often  done  out  of 
the  house ;  but  if  they  are  to  be  cleaned  and  polished  at  home,  one 
needs  an  outfit  of  a  cleaning  brush,  a  daubing  brush,  and  a  polishing 
brush.  These  are  bulky  enough  to  require  a  box,  which  takes  up 
considerable  room.  There  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as.  to 
where  this  cleaning  ^vork  should  be  done.  If  the  bathroom  is  large 
enough,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  cleaning  should  not  be  done  there. 
If  the  box  is  the  usual  blackening  box,  it  has  a  carpeted  top,  and 
may  serve  as  a  seat. 

In  houses  where  back  hallways  are  commodious,  that  may  seem 
a  better  choice,  because  the  time  required  to  clean  shoes  may  mean 
that  the  bathroom  is  in  use  too  long  for  the  comfort  of  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family. 

Tool  Closet. — A  closet  or  chest  of  tools  should  be  provided 
with  a  work  bench.  A  list  of  desirable  items  follows :  Awl ;  brass 
hooks ;  brass  rings ;  chisel — cold,  wood ;  emery  paper ;  gimlet ;  glue ; 
hammer ;  hatchet ;  nails,  several  sizes ;  oil  can ;  paint  brushes ;  picture 
hooks;  picture  wire;  pliers;  punch  for  leather;  sandpaper;  saw; 
screw  eyes;  screws,  several  sizes;  screw  driver;  shears,  heavy; 
steel  wool;  tacks,  several  sizes  and  kinds;  tack  puller;  upholstery 
tacks ;  wire ;  wire  cutter ;  wrench. 

CLOTHING  STORAGE 

Hangers. — Those  garments  which  are  in  frequent  use  will  keep 
their  shape  better  if  hung  on  coat  and  skirt  hangers.  The  coats 
should  be  buttoned  to  keep  the  fronts  from  sagging.  Skirts  will  hang 
much  better  if  clamped  by  the  band  in  a  skirt  hanger.  If  one  is 
travelling,  or  is  without  sufficient  hangers  for  coats,  some  may  be 
made  for  coats  and  dresses  by  rolling  newspapers  tightly  and  tying 
in  the  middle  of  the  roll  with  a  string  or  tape,  or  in  an  emergency 


228  HOUSEWIFERY 

with  a  handkerchief.  Make  a  loop  to  go  over  the  hook.  Half  of  a 
wooden  barrel  hoop,  wound  with  strips  of  cloth  and  suspended  with 
a  tape  in  the  middle,  is  an  excellent  hanger.  Two  safety  pins  fast- 
ened in  each  end  of  a  folded  skirt  band  will  hold  the  skirt  in  good 
shape. 

Dress  garments  for  both  men  and  women,  as  well  as  other  special 
clothing,  will  have  suitable  protection  if  slipped  into  an  old  night- 
dress, or  a  cambric  or  percale  slip,  or  cover  bag  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  material  should  be  light  so  that  its  weight  will  not  crush 
soft  laces  and  dress  fabrics.  The  sleeves  may  be  stuffed  with  tissue 
paper. 

To  Put  Away  Clothing. — The  first  essential  in  storing  cloth- 
ing is  cleanliness;  therefore  all  spots  should  be  removed,  especially 
from  woolens.  Muslins  and  linens  should  be  washed,  not  starched, 
and  left  rough  dry.  Silks  when  possible  should  be  rolled.  The 
thoroughly  clean  garment  should  be  packed  in  moth-proof  con- 
tainers, which  range  all  the  way  from  tight  newspaper  wrappings, 
and  sheets  of  tar  paper,  to  tar-paper  bags  and  cedar  chests.  Pepper, 
tar  balls,  camphor,  cedar  chips,  or  a  combination  of  cedar,  camphor, 
and  tar,  such  as  is  sold  in  packages,  are  usually  enclosed  with  gar- 
ments as  an  extra  precaution.  The  object  of  these  materials  is 
to  keep  out  moths  and  other  insects,  as  they  are  pungent  and  irritat- 
ing to  the  air  passages  of  the  insect. 

In  wrapping  clothing,  the  essential  point  is  to  overlap  the  wrap- 
pings to  avoid  having  cracks.  This  may  be  done  by  interweaving 
sheets  of  newspaper  so  that  the  journey  of  the  moth  would  be 
decidedly  roundabout.  Newspaper  caps  can  be  fitted  over  the  ends, 
and  then  when  tied  tightly  one  has  a  bundle  which  may  be  con- 
sidered safe.  Packages,  boxes,  and  even  closets,  can  be  sealed  with 
strips  of  paper.  This  is  advisable  in  houses  where,  for  some  un- 
known reason,  there  is  much  trouble  with  moths.  In  city  homes 
where  one  is  especially  limited  for  room,  it  may  seem  advisable  to 
send  large  pieces  such  as  furs  and  rugs  away  to  be  put  in  cold 
storage.  The  cold  storage  of  clothing  is  like  the  cold  storage  of 
food — the  temperature  so  low  (34  degrees)  that  bacterial  life  is 
inactive. 

Shoes,  when  not  in  use,  should  be  stored  where  there  is  a 
circulation  of  air,  and  should  be  put  away  clean  and  dry  (Fig.  141). 
Leather  will  resist  a  certain  amount  of  water,  but  needs  to  be  dried 


STORAGE 


229 


carefully  in  order  to  maintain  its  pliability.  If  it  is  dried  too 
close  to  heat,  as  is  so  often  done  with  shoes,  the  leather  becomes 
hardened  and  parched  beyond  repair.  Leather  dries  in  the  air, 


FIG.  141.— Clothing  storage,  with  special  place  for  shoes 


and  needs  redressing  with  some  oil  mixture.     This  is  especially 
so  with  shoes  that  have  hard  wear. 

Keep  shoes  in  shape  by  stuffing  with  paper,  or  by  using  a  shoe 


230  HOUSEWIFERY 

tree;  a  corset  steel  will  make  a  good  shoe-tree  substitute.  Two  pairs 
of  shoes  worn  alternately  will  wear  longer  than  if  they  arc  worn 
consecutively. 

Clothing  Storage  Closet  or  Boxes. — Moths  and  other  small 
pests,  such  as  silver  fish  and  buffalo  bugs,  may  do  great  damage 
to  clothing,  blankets,  etc.,  when  in  storage.  Often  the  housekeeper 
stores  these  articles  in  old  trunks  that  perhaps  have  served  their 
first  use  for  travelling.  This  kind  of  storage  seems  satisfactory 
because  the  trunk  affords  a  means  of  locking  up  the  extra  material ; 
but  the  disadvantage  of  such  an  old  trunk  is  that  it  may  not  be 
tight  enough  to  be  vermin-proof.  Special  chests,  either  cedar  line:! 
or  all  cedar,  furnish  a  much  better  means  of  storage.  They  are 
usually  tongued  and  grooved,  so  the  cracks  are  virtually  sealed, 
The  cover  has  a  heavy  molding  and  when  in  place  puts  the  contents 
into  a  closed  and  sealed  box. 

Closets  in  the  attic  or  top  floor  are  often  planned  on  a  large 
scale  especially  for  summer  storage  of  woolens.  These  are  sometime? 
cedar  lined,  have  sealed  floors,  and  the  door  closes  against  a  molding, 
so  that  when  entirely  packed  it  is  possible  to  seal  the  door  and  thus 
make  an  air-tight  room.  ISTone  of  these  closets  can  insure  proper 
care  of  the  clothing  unless  the  clothing  is  first  thoroughly  cleaned, 
and  the  closet  cleaned  and  properly  sealed.  Under  these  conditions 
any  well-made  closet,  even  if  without  cedar,  may  be  a  good  storage 
closet.  Closets  have  an  advantage  over  trunks,  for  they  can  take 
large  garments,  even  rugs,  robes  and  heavy  coats,  and  suits  without 
folding.  It  is  far  better,  for  example,  to  hang  furs,  than  to  fold 
them  and  pack  tightly  in  a  box. 

Sewing  materials,  such  as  extra  pieces  of  goods,  odd  bits  of 
trimming,  hooks  and  eyes,  buttons,  tapes,  and  many  other  thing? 
needed  for  mending  and  marking  are  best  stored  near  the  sewing 
machine  and  its  working  center.  This  place  may  be  in  the  house- 
wife's bedroom,  or  the  nursery,  but  best  of  all  in  a  room  set  aside 
as  a  sewing-room.  This  room  may,  if  necessary,  be  so  planned  thai 
it  makes  an  excellent  extra  guest  room;  but  sewing  work  really 
demands  its  own  accommodations. 

Every  housewife  has  her  own  ideas  about  storing  patterns  and 
left-over  bits  of  material,  but  it  would  seem  that  had  she  ever  trie<J 
shelves  with  hinged  drop-fronts  (like  a  linen  closet)  or  drawers,  she 
would  not  consider  bags.  With  bags,  too  often  the  whole  contents 


STORAGE 


231 


must  be  emptied  to  find  the  thing  desired.  If  a  case  of  small  and 
shallow  drawers  were  built  on  one  side  of  the  room,  they  would 
furnish  excellent  storage  for  all  sewing  materials  that  are  small  but 
can  be  so  easily  classified.  In  a  chest  of  larger  drawers  can  be 

kept  pieces,  of  materials,  trim- ^ 

mings,  bolts  of  belting  and 
braid.  Besides  these,  there  is 
needed  at  least  one  drawer  for 
collecting  garments  for  mend- 
ing, and  another  for  stockings 
for  mending. 

Sewing  cabinets  (Fig.  142), 
tables,  and  baskets  are  good  in 
a  small  way,  but  if  a  house- 
keeper is  to  do  muCjh  sewing, 
altering  and  mending,  she  will 
need  more  storage  room.  An 
old  chiffonier  will  serve  the 
purpose  well  for  the  larger 
things,  one  drawer  being  par- 
titioned off  to  make  bins  for 
the  small  necessities.  Boxes 
of  different  sizes  will  serve  as 
bins,  or  there  may  be  made 
many  small  partitioned  spaces 
(perhaps  by  the  man  of  the 
house),  which  will  give  addi- 
tional chance  for  dividing  and 
classifying  sewing  supplies. 

Wire  nails  one  inch  long,  driven  FIG.  142.— Caroline  sewing  case.  De- 
at  regular  intervals  in  the  cf£ed  by  Mr8'  w"  H"  Wadhams-  *ew  York 
bottom  of  a  drawer,  will  keep 

spools  in  order  ready  for  instant  use,  because  the  size  of  thread  is 
shown.  (For  Sewing  Supplies,  see  chapter  on  Supplies,  page  143.) 

STORAGE)  OF  ARTICLES  OF  PERSONAL  USE 

There  are  many  personal  articles  of  more  or  less  daily  use  about 
the  house,  the  convenient  care  of  which  is  a  problem.  Such  articles 
as  books,  magazines,  music  records,  athletic  goods  illustrate  this 


232  HOUSEWIFERY 

problem.  Much  of  the  daily  work  of  the  home  consists  of  putting 
these  things  in  order.  There  are  two  parts  to  the  solution  of  this 
problem:  one  part  is  to  provide  a  regular  place  for  keeping  such 
things;  the  other  is  training  children  and  older  persons,  'as  far  as 
that  is  practicable,  to  put  things  back  after  using  them.  Two 
storage  problems  in  this  field  are  presented:  music  and  athletic 
goods. 

Music  cabinets  can  be  bought  or  made  for  storing  sheet  music, 
phonograph  records,  and  player  piano  rolls.  So  much  music  is 
bound  with  only  a  paper  back  that  shelves  seem  more  suitable  than 
racks  on  which  the  music  must  stand  book  fashion.  Have  many 
shelves  close  together  rather  than  two  or  three  far  apart,  for  then 
fewer  sheets  may  be  stored  in  each  section.  The  music  is  easier  to 
find,  and  can  be  classified  according  to  kind,  or  to  author.  Many  find 
it  wise  to  bind  up  sheet  music  with  twenty-five  or  more  sheets  in  a 
cloth  book-binding,  with  an  index  page.  Phonograph  records  are 
conveniently  kept  in  albums. 

Sport  or  athletic  goods  are  usually  to  be  used  out  of  doors, 
so  it  is  better  to  plan  a  good  closet  for  such  things  on  the  first  floor 
or  in  the  basement,  or  perhaps  off  the  vestibule.  They  need  to  be 
kept  dry  and  clean,  and  the  space  should  be  provided  with  hooks 
to  hang  tennis  rackets  and  special  clothing,  shelves  to  lay  gloves 
and  nets,  and  small  drawers  or  boxes  to  hold  balls  and  other  small 
articles. 

TO  CLOSE  THE  HOUSE 

The  house  itself  should  be  thoroughly  clean,  so  clean  that 
there  is  no  chance  for  particles  of  dirt  and  dust  to  attract  vermin. 
All  portieres  should  be  taken  down,  brushed  and  put  away  from 
dust  and  moths.  The  lace  or  net  curtains  should  be  washed  and 
left  rough  dry  ready  to  be  starched,  stretched  and  finished.  Bureau 
drawers  should  be  gone  over,  woolens  aired  and  put  away  from  moths, 
and  left  in  order. 

To  'Store  Silver. — When  storage  of  silver  is  spoken  of,  one 
usually  pictures  a  safe  deposit  vault;  but  whether  stored  there  or 
in  the  house,  the  housewife  should  take  some  special  precaution  to 
avoid  scratching.  Of  recent  years  the  silversmith  has  delivered 
silver  in  cases  or  in  canton  flannel  bags.  It  behooves  the  house- 
keeper to  keep  these  cases  and  bags,  because  of  the  great  protection 
they  offer  in  the  storing  of  silver,  whether  it  is  placed  in  the  side- 


STORAGE 


233 


board  from  one  special  function  to  another,  or  stored  away  in  a 
chest  or  vault. 

If  the  housewife  has  no  such  cases,  there  can  easily  be  made  or 
purchased  special  bags  (Fig.  143),  to  fit  the  different  pieces  of 
silver;  or  one  may  cut  squares  which  may  be  used  for  wrapping 
each  piece.  The  jewelers  use  red,  gray,  or  green  canton  flannel, 


FIG.  143 . — Storage  of  silver.    The  storage  bags  are  of  canton  flannel. 

with  canton  flannel  or  velvet. 


The  drawers  are  lined 


not  white,  because  the  chemical  that  has  bleached  the  white  canton 
flannel  often  causes  the  silver  to  darken.  Cases  should  be  made 
for  flat  silver  with  separate  pocket  sections  for  each  piece,  so  that 
when  the  small  pieces  are  rolled  there  is  a  layer  of  canton  flannel 
between  pieces;  with  tape  sewed  to  the  case,  it  makes  possible  a 
neat,  compact  roll.  If  the  drawer,  chest,  or  bag  has  in  it  a  few 
pieces  of  gum  camphor,  the  tarnish  will  not  form  so  soon. 


234 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Rugs  should  be  cleaned,  and  if  they  are  not  to  be  in  use  for 
some  time,,  they  should  be  rolled,  and  put  away  as  woolens.  Rolling 
rather  than  folding  will  prevent  creases.  In  homes  where  there 
are  many  fine  rugs,  they  may  conveniently  be  wrapped  and  left  on 
the  floor  in  one  of  the  rooms,  without  carrying  up  or  downstairs. 
This  does  not  afford  any  special  safety  against  fire,  so  it  is  often 
considered  an  economy  to  have  valuable  rugs  cleaned  by  the  expert 

cleaner  and  placed  in  cold  storage,  in  a 
fireproof  storage  warehouse. 

Upholstered  furniture  should  have 
a  thorough  brushing  and  beating  with  a 
soft  beater,  or  should  be  cleaned  with 
a  vacuum  cleaner — a  more  thorough 
method.  The  furniture  should  be  cov- 
ered with  dust  sheets  and  paper,  too, 
as  a  special  precaution  against  moths. 
Beds  should  be  left  well  aired,  un- 
made, and  with  the  pillows  covered  with 
a  clean  sheet. 

Pictures  and  Chandeliers. — Place 
fine  nets  or  muslin  over  the  pictures 

that  have  no  glass,  as  is  usual  with  oil  paintings,  and  over 
those  that  have  gilt  frames.  Lemon  oil,  or  any  very  thin  oil,  may 
be  wiped  over  the  gilt  chandeliers  and  brass  bedsteads,  as  it  prevents 
the  shellac  from  hardening  and  cracking,  or  perhaps  peeling  off,  and 
rust  spots  from  forming  on  the  unprotected  metal. 

Cereals  and  Food  Containers. — If  the  house  is  to  be  closed  for 
a  long  period,  it  is  wise  to  empty  out  such  foods,  and  leave  the 
containers  empty  after  a  thorough  scalding  and  airing.  Should 
cereals  be  kept  for  a  short  time  when  the  house  is  closed,  be  sure 
that  the  containers  are  tightly  closed.  Put  candles  and  matches  in 
tight  tin  boxes. 

Stoves  may  be  treated  with  oil,  or  may  be  well  blackened ;  the 
latter  should  be  done  so  well  that  the  blacking  becomes  really  an 
enamel  coating.  Gas  stoves  should  be  left  with  a  coat  of  black  enamel 
stove  paint,  a  fireproof  kind  which  is  made  especially  for  stoves. 

Windows. — Papers  placed  in  the  windows  before  closing  will 
tighten  the  cracks  and  prevent  the  sifting  in  of  dust.  A  little  light 
is  good ;  but  a  window  with  no  shutter  or  shade  exposes  wallpaper, 


FIG.  144. — Racks  for  window 
screen  storage.  Courtesy  of 
Charles  E.  White  and  Ladies 
Home  Journal. 


STORAGE  235 

rugs,  and  all  furnishings  to  an  unnecessary  fading  from  the  effect 
of  the  sunlight. 

Window  screens  should  be  taken  out,  cleaned,  wiped  with  oil 
or  kerosene  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  (Fig.  144). 

Rubber  goods  deteriorate  very  rapidly  in  heat  and  sunlight, 
therefore  they  should  he  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  Where  two 
thicknesses  of  rubber  are  likely  to  stick  together,  they  should  be  wiped 
as  dry  as  possible,  or  hung  to  dry,  and  dusted  with  talcum  powder. 
If  oil  has  been  used  with  rubber,  whether  a  syringe  bag  or  auto- 
mobile tire,  it  must  be  entirely  removed,  or  a  soft  spot  will  form  in 
the  rubber.  Kerosene  dissolves  rubber ;  if  used  to  clean  it,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  wringer,  the  kerosene  should  be  washed  off  immediately. 

Iron  and  steel  should  be  wiped  over  with  kerosene  or  sweet  oil, 
using  always  a  liquid  oil  rather  than  lard  or  heavy  grease.  A  salty 
grease  like  kitchen  fat1  will  produce  rust  and  should  not  be  used. 

Flat-irons  are  best  cleaned  and  waxed,  even  to  their  handles,  and 
then  wrapped  tightly  in  newspaper. 

Electric  Motors. — All  motors  such  as  may  be  found  on  the 
washing  machines,  ironers,  vacuum  sweepers,  should  be  stored  where 
it  is  very  dry;  it  is  wise  to  take  them  out  of  a  cellar  or  basement 
and  put  them  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house.  Motors  that  have 
absorbed  moisture  will  spark  and  cross  circuit,  and  to  overcome  the 
difficulty  will  have  to  be  sent  to  be  rewound,  a  renewal  that  may  cost 
ten  dollars  or  more. 

Plumbing. — All  flush  closets  and  traps  under  wash  basins  and 
other  fixtures  should  be  thoroughly  flooded  with  strong  soap  suds, 
carbolic  acid  water,  or  hot  washing  soda  solution.  Soda  is  most 
generally  used  because  the  housekeeper  is  familiar  with  it.  It  is 
to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  two  pounds  of  soda  to  a  gallon 
of  water.  If  this  is  done  at  the  last,  before  leaving  the  house,  it 
will  mean  that  this  soda  water  has  not  only  gone  down  the  pipes,  but 
that  some  of  it  has  remained  in  the  traps.  In  order  that  this  water 
in  the  trap  under  basins  may  not  evaporate  during  the  absence  from 
the  house,  the  stoppers  may  be  put  into  the  waste  openings  in  the 
basins;  but  never  do  this  unless  the  water  is  shut  off  at  the  main 
inlet  pipe.  This  will  prevent  any  chance  of  a  flood  by  a  sudden 
forcing  of  the  faucet.  Another  way  to  prevent  evaporation  is  to 
paste  a  heavy  paper  cover  over  the  tops  of  the  basins ;  but  the  best 
way  is  to  pour  about  one-half  cup  of  sweet  oil  into  each  trap. 


236 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Oil  should  also  be  put  into  flush  closet  traps.  This  will  float  on  the 
water  that  is  in  the  trap,  act  as  a  seal,  and  prevent  evaporation. 
Be  sure  that  the  house  inlet  pipe  is  turned  off  and  the  house  pipes 
drained,  so  that  no  one  can  draw  water,  or  no  faucet  he  forced  open 

by  pressure  from  the  main, 
and  so  that  a  broken  pipe,  as 
might  occur  in  the  winter, 
could  not  flood  the  house. 

TO  ORGANIZE  'STORAGE 

Tags  and  Labels. — Food 
containers,  all  packages  whose 
contents  are  not  self-evident, 
and  especially  every  medicine 
bottle,  should  be  carefully 
labelled.  It  saves  time  and 
insures  proper  use;  lack  of 
labels  with  medicine  may  lead 
to  serious  consequences. 

The  housekeeper  will  find 
in  various  stationers'  stores 
labels  and  tags  of  appropriate 
shape  and  size,  and  often 
specially  designed  for  various 
household  uses  (Fig.  145). 
Books  of  household  labels  are 
a  convenience  because  they  are 
printed,  and  save  writing  the 
names.  Key  tags  for  closets, 
larger  tags  for  jugs  and  boxes, 
and  even  little  metal  holders 
which  can  be  attached  to  the 
drawers,  are  obtainable  in  the 
market.  It  will  be  found  the 

FIG.  145.— Various  kinds  of  labels  for  differ-     oreatest  Saving1  to  purchase  the 
ent  needs.  »  0     &         l 

best  kind  of  tags,  write  names 

plainly,  cover  the  names  with  shellac  to  preserve  them ;  and  then 
to  take  time  to  organize  and  label  all  containers,  shelves,  closets, 
and  drawers,  whose  contents  can  be  better  controlled  thereby. 


STORAGE 


237 


Filing  Boxes. — Filing,  pamphlet,  and  storage  boxes  may  be 
purchased  in  various  sizes  and  shapes,  and  are  without  doubt  the 
best  way  to  classify  and  tabulate  all  such  things  as  business  papers, 
receipted  bills,  photographs,  clippings,  and  special  copies  of  maga- 
zines and  newspapers. 


146. — Housekeepe 


Card  Catalogs. — The  card  catalog  method  of  filing  informa- 
tion is  most  convenient.  The  cards  are  quite  inexpensive  if  bought 
in  hundred  lots,  and  by  means  of  several  boxes  with  thumb  index 
tabs,  one  may  have  an  effectively  organized  set  of  helpful  references. 
Addresses  are  best  kept  this  way ;  recipes  are  well  arranged  by  divid- 


238  HOUSEWIFERY 

ing  into  various  sections  such  as  soups,  meat,  salad,  etc.  Housewives 
who  have  used  the  card  catalog  method  often  arrange  their  budget 
and  expense  records  on  cards ;  some  even  list  the  winter  and  summer 
storage  together  with  the  type  of  article,  and  keep  account  of  sup- 
plies and  materials,  together  with  the  cost,  purchased  in  a  year; 
cards  also  serve  to  take  account  of  stock  in  large  supply  closets. 
The  small  3  x  5-inch  cards  and  the  larger  5  x  8-inch  cards  are  both 
desirable. 

Slips  of  paper  about  3x5  inches  in  size,  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order  and  kept  either  in  a  box,  or  in  groups  in  envelopes  with  a 
group  label  on  the  envelope,  make  a  very  inexpensive  way  of  using 
the  card  record  system. 

Business  Desk. — The  housewife  should  have  a  business-like 
desk  for  her  business  books,  records,  papers,  and  perhaps  a  type- 
writing machine,  as  well  as  a  place  to  sit  and  write.  The  desk 
drawers  will  furnish  most  convenient  storage  (Fig.  146). 

Small  closets,  perhaps  in  a  panel  in  the  woodwork  of  the  library, 
den,  or  hall,  will  make  excellent  storage  space  for  writing  paper, 
pencils,  ink,  glue,  blotters,  etc. 

Wrapping  paper  and  string  are  wanted  in  so  many  places 
that  it  seems  wise  to  plan  several  small  storage  places  in  different 
parts  of  the  house.  Drawers  have  been  used  successfully,  but  because 
it  is  a  compact  way,  suitable  for  the  needs  of  doing  up  bundles,  a 
paper  and  string  bag  has  proved  very  satisfactory.  Instead  of  mak- 
ing the  usual  bag  drawn  up  with  a  drawstring,  a  shaped  bag  is  more 
convenient.  One  and  one-half  yards  of  cretonne  will  not  only 
make  such  a  bag,  but  will  allow  'for  a  pretty  matching  of  the  pattern, 
even  if  the  pattern  is  large.  Any  plain  material  will  cut  to  better 
advantage  but  may  not  be  so  decorative.  A  roll  of  wrapping  paper 
and  a  ball  of  string,  arranged  as  in  stores,  may  be  placed  at  some 
convenient  point  in  the  house,  as  in  the  mending  or  sewing  room, 
or  in  a  large  kitchen. 

SUGOESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Draw  a  diagram  to  show  how  your  kitchen  table  may  be  made  into  a 

kitchen  cabinet  for  your  home  kitchen. 

2.  Plan  a  linen  closet. 

3.  How  may  labels  be  attached  to  glass  and  tin  containers? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  contents  to  be  put  on  door  of  the  closet  containing  tools. 


STORAGE  239 

5.  Make  a  diagram  of  a  cellar  showing  best  places  for  fruit  and  vegetable 

storage. 

6.  What  rules  should  be  observed  in  putting  away  clothing? 

7.  How  would  you  store  curtains  through  the  summer  ? 

REFERENCES 

CHILDS,  GEORGIA  B.,  THE  EFFICIENT  KITCHEN.    McBride,  Nast  &  Co. 

FREDERICK,  CHRISTINE,  THE  NEW  HOUSEKEEPING.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

MACLEOD,  SARAH,  HANDBOOK  OF  CLEANING.    Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York. 

TABER,  C.  W.,  THE  BUSINESS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 
pany. 

WHITE,  CHARLES  SUCCESSFUL  HOMES  AND  How  TO  BUILD  THEM.  Macmillan 
Co. 


CHAPTER  IX 

CLEANING   AND    CARE   OF   ROOMS,    BEDS,    BATH- 
ROOM, KITCHEN,  METALS 

A  CLEAN  house  is  a  great  joy,  is  a  sanitary  necessity,  and  reflects 
credit  on  the  housekeeper,  provided  she  has  her  work  so  organized 
that  she  does  not  spend  her  entire  time  and  strength  doing  it.  Time 
and  effort  are  the  real  test.  When  the  housekeeper  makes  a  study 
of  this  department  of  her  business,  she  finds  labor-saving  tools  and 
many  short  cuts  in  method  possible,  which  give  as  good  results, 
sometimes  better  than  the  old  way,  and  accomplish  the  work  in 
half  the  time.  Labor-saving  tools  are  not  necessarily  tools  with 
much  mechanism,  or  a  motor  to  do  the  work,  while  the  house- 
keeper reads  or  visits;  they  are  often  hand  tools  which  are  fitted 
to  the  task  they  are  to  perform.  A  soft,  spongy,  rough-weave  dish 
cloth  is  no  more  costly  than  a  piece  of  smooth  towelling,  but  is  a 
great  deal  better  dish  cloth.  The  rougher  material  washes  and 
wipes  better.  It  is  only  a  question  of  getting  the  round  peg  in 
the  round  hole.  Cost  in  money  is  really  little,  but  the  real  cost 
is  in  mental  exercise.  Let  the  housewife  read,  investigate,  and  be 
willing  to  try  a  new  method  until  she  proves  that  it  is  better  or 
worse  than  her  own. 

Under  Equipment  and  Labor-saving  Appliances,  page  84,  has 
been  discussed  the  requirements  of  good  tools,  suitability  for  their 
work  by  their  shape,  size,  and  ease  with  which  they  may  be  handled 
and  cleaned.  But  what  saving  is  the  tool  if  the  method  is  poor? 
The  "  head  will  save  the  heels  "  by  studying  methods  of  work ;  and 
that  is  the  problem  of  this  chapter  on  Cleaning. 

Cleaning  involves  a  mechanical  rubbing,  often  combined  with 
the  chemical  dissolving  of  dirt,  grease,  or  oxides  of  metals  as  is  seen 
in  the  tarnish  of  metals.  It  means  gathering  dust  into  a  cloth 
without  spreading  it ;  washing  with  soap  and  water  to  cut  the  grease 
which  holds  the  dirt;  rubbing  with  oils  and  polishes  and  abrasive 
materials  to  produce  a  bright,  shiny  surface. 

Everything  in  the  house  must  be  cleaned,  and  many  things 
have  finally  to  be  renovated  (see  chapter  on  Cleaning  and  Renovat- 
240 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS 


241 


ing,  page  273.  The  cleaning  of  one  room  is  not  particularly  differ- 
ent from  another ;  it  is  therefore  best  to  consider  how  .to  clean  the 
different  groups  or  types  of  furniture  or  furnishings.  In  that  way 
the  cleaning  of  the  whole  house  may  be  studied.  The  short  cuts 
of  experience  are  often  the  greatest  time  and  labor  savers,  and  are 
not  evidences  of  slackness,  but  of  efficiency.  Often  the  shortest 
way  is  the  best. 

CLEANING  OF  ROOMS 

General  Rules  for  Cleaning  a  Room. —  Dust  and  remove  or 
put  under  cover  small  articles  and  bric-a-brac. 

Dust  or  brush  furniture;  if  small,  remove  from  the  room,  if 
large,  cover  with  a  dust  sheet. 

Shake  and  brush  curtains  and  hangings;  remove  from  the 
room,  or  pin  in  dust  bags. 

Roll  up  small  rugs  knd  remove  from  the  room  to  clean ;  if  large, 
sweep  and  fold  back  the  edges  towards  the  center. 

Dust  ceiling  and  walls. 

Dust  window  shades. 

Clean  radiators. 

Dust  closet  floor. 

Dust  floors. 

Dust  doors,  baseboard,  and  other  woodwork  to  the  floor  and  base- 
board. 

Clean  windows. 

Clean  chandelier. 

Wash  globes. 

Wash  mirrors. 

Wipe  pictures. 

Polish  floor. 

Return  rugs,  furniture  and  bric-a-brac. 

Polish  brass  and  silver  unless  all  are  done  on  a  special  day. 

The  question  arises,  Shall  all  things  that  can  be  moved,  be  taken 
from  the  room,  or  shall  the  dusted  bric-a-brac  stay  on  some  cleaned 
table  or  bed,  covered,  and  only  the  small  pieces  of  furniture  that 
stand  on  the  floor,  in  the  way,  be  removed  ?  Time  allowance  will 
perhaps  answer  the  question.  If  a  maid  has  many  rooms  to  clean 
in  a  specified  time,  she  cannot  take  everything  out.  A  tray  for 
small  articles  will  help  a  great  deal;  and  to  cover  after  dusting 
will  also  save  time,  because  less  dust  gets  on  the  furniture  or  fur- 
16 


242 


HOUSEWIFERY 


nishings.  For  a  thorough,  cleaning  (Fig.  147)  remove  as  much 
from  the  room  as  possible,  because  in  the  end  much  handling  is 
avoided,  and  besides  there  is  the  handicap  of  having  to  work  around 
things.  On  cleaning  the  things  that  are  left  in  the  room,  various 
routines  of  work  may  be  employed,  but  a  good  general  rule  is  to 
dust  high  things  first,  then  lower  ones,  taking  everything  in  order. 
In  a  bedroom,  the  bed  brings  in  a  different  problem;  but  if  the 
mattress  and  springs  are  brushed,  and  the  bed  made  up  before  the 


147.  —  Room  ready  for  sweeping. 


really  dusty  work  is  started,  it  can  be  used  to  hold  small  ornaments, 
and  then  kept  thoroughly  covered  during  the  cleaning  process. 

Dust  covers  should  be  freely  used  during  the  cleaning  process. 
(See  Cleaning  Equipment,  page  120.) 

Dustless  Sweeping.  —  In  sweeping  try  to  keep  from  flirting  the 
broom,  as  this  throws  the  dust  about  unnecessarily.  There  are  sev- 
eral "  dustless  "  ways  of  sweeping,  by  moistening  the  broom  and 
shaking  out  all  the  water  before  sweeping;  by  sprinkling  damp, 
left-over  tea  leaves  or  bits  of  moistened  paper  on  the  carpet,  be- 
cause these  toss  ahead  of  the  broom  and  moisten  and  gather  up  the 
dust  ;  by  spreading  moist  sawdust  on  tile  or  linoleum  floors  ;  and  by 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  243 

using  a  broom  bag  over  the  broom,  or  some  prepared  dustless  sweeper 
on  wood  floors.  The  moistened  broom  is  the  least  work,  but  unless 
one  is  very  careful  the  broom  is  used  too  wet,  and  soon  the  dust 
is  made  into  mud  which  when  spread  by  the  broom  dulls  the  carpet 
or  wood  floor.  The  dampened  paper  is  a  cheap,  satisfactory  method 
and  does  no  harm  to  the  rug  or  carpet.  Sprinkle  a  newspaper  as 
clothes  are  sprinkled,  and  then  tear  into  bits  and  scatter  over  the 
floor ;  it  need  not  be  over  the  whole  floor,  but  here  and  there  in  small 
quantities.  In  homes  where  the  vacuum  cleaner  is  used  daily  or 
weekly,  much  dust  and  dusting  have  been  eliminated.  There  is  less 
shaking  of  rugs  and  almost  no  whipping  of  upholstery  and  drapery. 
Vacuum  cleaners  will  not,  however,  remove  dust  films  from  wood- 
work, or  haze  from  windows  and  mirrors,  or  dust  from  ornaments, 
so  some  cleaning  still  remains  to  be  done  by  hand.  (For  vacuum 
cleaners  see  Cleaning  Equipment,  page  122.) 

Dustless  Sweepers. — (See  Cleaning  Equipment,  page  121.) 

Dusting. — A  good  duster  is  any  soft,  clean,  non-scratching  and 
non-linting  cloth.  A  good  dusting  stroke  is  one  that  wipes  and  at 
the  same  time  gathers  the  dust  into  the  cloth.  Cheesecloth  is  a 
good  material  for  all  kinds  of  dusting ;  old  silk  makes  a  soft  duster, 
but  cheesecloth,  if  clean,  will  do  as  well.  (For  cleaning  cloths,  see 
Cleaning  Equipment,  page  118.) 

Dustless  dusting  is  quite  like  dustless  sweeping.  A  soft  cloth, 
one  that  wrings  dry  easily,  may  be  wrung  out  of  very  hot  water, 
shaken  to  let  out  the  steam,  and  it  will  make  an  excellent  dustless 
duster.  A  tablespoon  of  kerosene  added  to  a  quart  of  hot  water,  from 
which  the  duster  is  wrung,  will  make  a  duster  as  satisfactory  as  the 
more  expensive  ones  for  dusting  all  wood  surfaces.  Of  course,  no 
oily  duster  should  be  used  on  wallpaper  or  wherever  the  oil  may 
make  a  mark. 

To  Wipe  Walls. — Either  painted  or  papered  walls  need  wip- 
ing, and  because  a  soft  duster  gathers  dirt  without  scratching,  plan 
to  use  a  long-handled,  soft  hair  brush  or  outing  flannel  bag  on  a 
broom.  Wool  brushes  are  sold  for  the  purpose,  but  they  are  expen- 
sive, need  a  great  deal  of  care  to  wash  and  keep  clean,  and  their  effi- 
ciency does  not  warrant  the  time  and  effort  cost. 

Wallpaper  may  be  easily  marred  by  hard  rubbing.  Use  a  soft, 
perfectly  clean  cloth,  like  outing  flannel,  and  rub  with  a  very  even 
stroke  and  very  little  pressure.  Rubbing  hard  blurs  the  pattern, 


244  HOUSEWIFERY 

wipes  off  gilt,  and  often  roughs  the  paper  so  that  a  spot  results. 
One  method  for  spotted  or  sooty  paper  is  that  used  with  soft  stale 
bread  by  cutting  away  the  hard  scratchy  crust,  and  using  a  fresh 
part  of  the  inside  of  the  loaf  as  fast  as  it  soils.  Putty  erasers 
and  prepared  starch  or  dough  cleaners  can  be  used,  but  unless  one 
has  much  time  and  more  patience  to  do  it  evenly,  one  ought  not  to 
begin.  The  results  are  not  very  satisfactory,  and,  too,  all  the  cleaner 
must  be  removed.  The  starch  and  dough  cleaners  may  draw  ants, 
flies,  silver  fish,  and  small  insects  that  feed  on  flour  or  wheat.  Putty 
wallpaper  cleaners  may  be  bought  in  cans. 

Grease  spots  are  hard  to  remove  from  wallpaper.  A  warm 
iron  and  blotting  paper  is  one  way  to  absorb  grease ;  but  one  that  is 
better,  in  that  it  will  not  change  the  color  of  the  paper,  is  to  put 
on  as  thick  a  layer  of  fullers'  earth  or  magnesium,  or  even  talcum 
powder,  as  will  stay  on  the  upright  surface.  After  twenty-four 
hours  lightly  brush  off  the  powder.  Heavy  rubbing  will  spread  the 
grease  that  the  powder  has  absorbed.  Several  applications  will  do 
much  toward  cleaning  the  paper  if  it  does  not  succeed  entirely. 

Other  Wall  Coverings. — Heavy,  embossed  paper,  burlap,  tapes- 
tries, and  brocades,  will  hold  dust,  so  the  main  care  is  a  frequent 
brushing  with  a  hair  brush,  or  going  over  them  with  the  vacuum 
cleaner.  Any  very  special  cleaning  with  gasolene,  or  detergents, 
will  end  in  very  irregular  results,  and  had  better  not  be  undertaken. 

Painted  Walls. — Painted  walls  are  very  likely  to  be  found,  at 
least  in  the  laundry,  kitchen,  bathroom,  and  vestibules;  besides, 
many  bedroom  and  living  room  walls  are  often  painted.  Any 
painted  wall  in  a  room  where  there  are  grease  fumes  or  moisture  will 
soil  quickly  >and  needs  to  be  wiped  frequently.  Dull  finished  paint, 
especially  white  painted  woodwork,  may  be  cleaned  with  whiting 
applied  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  very  hot  water.  Clean  only  a 
small  space  at  one  time,  and  in  straight  lines.  Yellow  soaps,  and  soda 
or  washing  powders,  will  do  rapid  work  on  cutting  grease  on  painted 
walls,  but  they  will  yellow  white  paints  and  may  change  the  color 
of  colored  paints.  Washing  powders  may  be  used  in  cleaning  painted 
walls  when  the  walls  are  very  dirty  and  greasy,  and  the  one  thought 
is  to  get  them  clean,  regardless  of  the  effect  on  the  color.  Use 
three  to  five  tablespoons  of  powder  to  a  pail  of  warm  water.  Wash 
with  one  cloth  and  wipe  with  another,  changing  for  clean  water 
and  clean  cloths  often  enough  to  prevent  streaks.  Use  an  up  and 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS 


245 


down  motion  and  be  sure  each  stroke  overlaps  the  last  and  leaves 
no  streaks.  Enamel  painted  walls  may  be  washed  like  a  dish, 
only  they  require  many  changes  of  water  -and  cloths,  much  perse- 
verance, and  a  standard  for  good  work.  If  the  wall  is  to  be  renewed 
by  painting,  the  painter's  estimate  should  include  a  preliminary 
washing,  and  then  it  should  be  done  under  the  supervision  of  the 
housekeeper.  No  one  wants  to  paint  on  top  of  dirt;  and  on  top  of 
grease,  paint  will  not  stick. 

Calcimine  walls  are  often  used,  as  their  first  cost  is  much  less 
than  that  of  enamel  paint.  This  may  not  in  the  end  represent  econ- 
omy, because  calcimine  spots  easily,  streaks  with  moisture,  as  steam 
condenses  on  the  walls,  and  it  cannot  be  washed  or  even  wiped  with  a 
stroke  heavy  enough  to  clean. 

Tiles. — Wall  tile  is 'usually  glazed  tile,  and  therefore  is  easy 
to  clean  by  washing  with  warm  soapy  water.  The  floor  tile  is  of  the 
same  material,  but  usually  it  has  less  glaze  and  is  more  difficult 
to  clean  on  that  account,  and  also  because  the  wear  of  the  foot 
action  and  the  grit  from  the  soil  on  shoes  leaves  a  grimy  mark. 
For  tile  floors,  use  strong  soap  suds  applied  with  a  long-handled 
scrub  brush  or  a  cloth  mop;  either  tool  allows  pressure  which  a 
string  mop  does  not  give.  A  strong  suds  for  the  work  may  be 
made  by  combining  1  Ib.  washing  soda  with  1  Ib.  .soap  and  4  gallons 
of  water.  In  houses  or  institutions  where  there  is  much  tile  to 
clean,  this  mixture  may  well  be  kept  on  hand  ready  for  use. 

If  there  is  paint  on  the  tile,  as  is  often  the  case  after  repainting 
walls,  it  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  cloth  moistened  with 
turpentine,  or  if  very  fresh,  by  yellow  laundry  soap  and  water.  If 
any  of  the  paint  has  dried  and  is  hard  to  remove,  moisten  the  cloth 
in  turpentine  and  then  use  some  abrasive  cleaner;  the  turpentine 
softens  the  paint,  and  the  scratchy  material  loosens  it.  Stains  on 
floor  tile  are  likely  to  happen  because  of  the  lack  of  glaze.  Should 
the  soda  and  water  solution  not  remove  such  a  stain,  apply  to  the 
spot  a  dilute  acid,  either  oxalic  or  hydrochloric,  using  two  parts 
water  to  one  part  acid.  The  acid  dissolves  a  little  of  the  lime  in  the 
tile  and  produces  a  new  clean  surface.  As  soon  as  the  acid  touches 
the  tile  there  will  be  an  effervescing,  which  shows  the  dissolving 
power  of  the  acid.  Use  only  a  little  at  one  time  and  in  definite 
places,  then  wash  quickly  with  soapy  water.  Soap  will  stop  the 
action  of  the  acid. 


246  HOUSEWIFERY 

Painted  floors  should  be  wiped  up  with  clear  water,  without 
soap  if  possible.  Any  soap  used  must  be  free  from  excess  soda,  and 
no  washing  powders  should  be  used. 

Hard  Wood. — Any  hard-wood  floor,  whether  oiled  or  waxed  or 
varnished,  must  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  grit  if  it  is  to  be  kept 
bright  and  shining,  as  grit  scratches  and  clouds  the  floor.    Moisture 
changes  the  color,  oil  darkens ;  so  it  is  wise  to  keep  the  floor  clean 
by  the  use  of  a  clean  soft  dusting  cloth.     When  a  more  thorough 
cleaning  is  desired,  the  woodwork  may  be  wiped  up  with  the  fol- 
lowing mixture,  using  it  much  as  one  would  use  water  to  wash  up  a 
floor.     Use  two  pieces  of  cheesecloth,  one  for  washing  and  one  for 
wiping,  and  as  fast  as  the  mixture  soils  mix  a  new  quantity.    Mix 
1  quart  boiling  water 
3  tablespoons  boiled  linseed  oil 
1  tablespoon  turpentine 

For  other  suggestions  for  Woods,  see  chapter  on  Cleaning  and 
Eenovation,  page  289. 

White  Enamel  Wood  or  Metal. — Use  clear  lukewarm  water 
and  with  a  soft  cheesecloth  wipe  the  enamel  paint.  Two  or  three 
drops  of  ammonia  in  a  pail  of  water  will  cut  the  grease  better  than 
soap  which  yellows  the  paint.  Whiting  or  Bon  Ami  may  be  used 
on  a  moistened  cloth.  Both  of  these  cleaners  will  leave  a  dust,  but 
-the  washing  of  the  woodwork  may  be  done  between  the  sweeping 
and  the  dusting  of  a  room. 

Care  of  Floor  Coverings. — The  floors  of  a  room  require  daily 
care,  which  is  the  brushing  up  of  lint,  dust  fluff,  thread,  or  perhaps 
crumbs  as  in  the  dining  room.  A  carpet  sweeper  may  be  used 
for  this,  or  a  long-handled  dustpan  and  a  small  broom.  The 
expense  of  the  last  two  articles  is  a  trifle  more  than  for  the  short- 
handled  dustpan  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  use,  but  there 
is  a  great  saving  to  the  worker. 

For  the  weekly  care  of  rugs,  it  is  well  to  take  those  easily  handled 
out  of  doors  to  clean.  It  means  less  dust  for  the  worker  and  less  dirt 
stays  in  the  house.  Rugs  should  be  laid  face  down  on  the  grass  or  on 
a  platform,  or  if  space  does  not  permit,  be  hung  on  a  clothesline. 
Beat  with  a  flat  rattan  beater,  rather  than  a  wire  or  stick  beater, 
which  will  cut  fine  rugs ;  and  then  brush  both  sides.  To  keep  from 
marring  the  rug,  hang  it  wrong  side  down  over  the  clothes  line.  This 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  24V 

method  will  give  the  rug  less  wear  than  to  shake  it,  which  tears  and 
frays  the  ends. 

Carpets,  fortunately,  are  not  so  much  used  as  they  once  were. 
They  rep  resented -so  much  work,  that,  as  has  been  said  in  the  chapter 
on  Furnishings,  most  carpets  have  been  cut  into  strips  or  rugs.  Any 
carpet,  when  taken  up,  can  be  cleaned  like  a  small  rug,  and  if  too 
large  to  remove  often,  may  be  swept  and  rolled  towards  the  center 
of  the  room  from  each  side,  so  that  as  large  a  space  as  possible 
is  left  on  all  sides  to  clean.  Any  carpet  or  rug  tacked  to  the  floor 
needs  very  special  care  around  its  edges  as  too  often  that  part  of  the 
rug  may  get  moth-eaten.  Of  course,  a  vacuum  cleaner  may  be  used 
so  frequently  and  easily  that  few  rugs  or  carpets,  large  or  small, 
need  to  be  taken  up.  Th£  vacuum  does  not  harm  rugs,  even  the  fine 
ones,  as  much  as  the  sand  and  grit  are  likely  to  do  if  left  in  the 
rug,  as  they  gradually  cut  the  fibers  with  their  sharp  particles. 

Matting  or  any  jute  or  straw  covering  may  be  swept,  but  because 
of  its  weave  it  is  very  likely  to  sift  dirt  to  the  floor  underneath. 
To  sweep  matting  well  and  then  wipe  it  with  cloths  wrung  out  of 
hot  water  to  which  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  have  been  added,  should 
keep  this  floor  covering  in  good  condition ;  the  dirt  beneath  should 
be  regularly  removed,  of  course. 

Linoleums  are  made  of  cork,  packed  tile  fashion  on  a  cloth  foun- 
dation, and  the  whole  is  waxed  or  varnished  over  as  a  top  finish. 
Linoleum  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  washing  with  a  soft 
cloth  or  brush,  and  by  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  the  scratching  of 
the  surface.  For  a  washing  solution,  use  the  best  white  household 
soap,  or  better  still  castile,  as  too  much  strong  soda  will  not  only 
fade  the  colors,  but  will  more  or  less  dry  out  the  surface  finish. 
Linoleums  have  so  much  wear  and  tear  from  the  friction  of  walking, 
and  from  the  moving  of  tables  or  chairs,  that  they  need  care  by 
oiling  or  waxing.  Waxing  with  the  wax  described  on  page  294,  under 
Table  Tops,  is  an  excellent  way  to  keep  floor  linoleum  in  good 
condition.  Linoleum  is  a  cork  composition  material  and  quite 
porous,  so  the  wax  may  be  rubbed  on  until  it  sinks  into  the  pores 
of  the  linoleum.  This  fills  all  the  interstices  between  the  particles 
of  cork,  and  makes  the  linoleum  surface  a  solid  mass  with  much 
greater  durability  than  without  it.  Milk,  which  has  sometimes  been 
recommended  as  a  cleaner,  gives  a  sticky  finish  and  leaves  a  sugary 
covering  on  the  linoleum  to  attract  flies  and  insects,  perhaps  vermin. 


248 


HOUSEWIFERY 


If  the  linoleum  is  varnished  or  shellaced,  wipe  it  with  the  linseed 
oil  and  turpentine  mixture  recommended  for  cleaning  hard  woods 
(page  246). 

Radiators. — Eadiators  and  registers  are  dust  catchers  because 
of  their  situation  and  construction.  A  small  flat  brush  comes  for 
this  purpose,  or  a  cloth  may  be  folded  on  a  flat  stick  and  used  as 
a  substitute  (Fig.  148).  When  cleaning,  put  a  moistened  paper 


FIG.   148. — Cleaning  the  radiator. 

under  the  radiator,  to  catch  the  dust  as  it  falls  down.  Eegisters 
are  often  screwed  in  the  floors  but  these  screws  are  easily  removed 
and  the  register  lifted  out ;  then  open  the  shutter  and  wipe  the  fans 
of  the  register  with  a  moistened  cloth. 

Window  cleaning  may  be  well  done  by  using  paper  instead 
of  a  cloth.  This  is  economy  to  the  worker,  as  various  pieces  of 
soft  paper  come  into  the  house  and  can  be  easily  saved  for  this  work ; 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS 


249 


choose  paper  that  does  not  lint.  Should  one  prefer  a  cloth,  choose 
one  clean  and  free  from  lint.  Chamois  is  a  good  cleaner  but  expen- 
sive at  first  cost,  and  requires  care  to  be  kept  very  soft  and  ready 
to  do  good  work  (Fig.  149). 

Various  cleaning  mixtures  may  be  used  with  either  the  paper  or 
the  cloth;  clear  water,  or 
clear  water  with  a  few  drops 
of  ammonia,  or  with  a 
little  dissolved  washing  soda, 
about  1  tablespoon  to  a  pail 
of  water;  and  on  very  cold 
days,  the  cloth  may  be  moifet- 
ened  with  wood  alcohol. 
This  last  makes  a  most  effi- 
cient cleaner,  but  is  expen- 
sive. Soap  is  less  satisfac- 
tory because  it  leaves  a  film 
over  the  surface  of  the  glass. 
Whiting  or  some  prepared 
cleaning  paste  may  be  used 
on  windows.  The  idea  is  to 
let  these  dry  and  then  wipe 
off  the  powder,  which  takes 
off  the  grease  film,  leav- 
ing the  windows  bright  and 
clear.  If  the  windows  are 
cleaned  by  this  method  it 
should  be  before  the  room 
is  all  cleaned,  as  there  will  be  a  great  deal  of  dust  about,  especially 
close  to  the  window  on  window  sills  and  floors.  Try  to  clean  win- 
dows when  the  sun  is  not  shining  on  them  directly,  as  it  causes 
uneven  evaporation  of  moisture  and  gives  a  streaked  surface. 

Mirrors. — In  cleaning  mirrors,  care  should  be  given  to  keep 
the  water  from  the  backs.  This  is  especially  true  with  the  small 
hand  mirrors,  mounted  either  in  silver  or  celluloid,  because  in  the 
cleaning  there  is  a  chance  for  water  to  get  in  behind  the  glass. 
Whiting  applied  with  a  cloth  which  has  been  moistened  with  a  few 
drops  of  wood  alcohol  or  water  will  make  an  excellent  cleaner  and 
will  not  need  an  abundance  of  water.  The  whiting  method  of 


FIG.  149. — Washing  a  window. 


250  HOUSEWIFERY 

cleaning  mirrors  and  windows  should  be  done  before  the  room  is 
dusted ;  see  cleaning  of  windows,  above. 

Paint  on  Glass — Window  or  Mirror. — Remove  by  washing 
with  washing  soda  and  boiling  water,  or  with  turpentine,  in  the 
same  way  as  for  paint  on  tile. 

Piano  keys  are  best  cleaned  with  wood  alcohol.  If  alcohol  can 
not  be  used,  it  is  best  to  use  clear  warm  water,  not  hot,  and  no  soap. 
Should  soap  be  used,  choose  only  a  good  white  soap,  as  the  soda  in 
many  household  soaps  will  be  enough  to  yellow  the  keys. 

Marble. — Marble  is  best  washed  in  soap  and  water,  and  wiped 
dry  so  as  to  leave  110  water  stains.  To  polish  marble,  rub  with  a 
smooth  piece  of  marble  and  water.  Acids  of  any  kind  take  off  all 
polish,  so  one  should  be  careful  of  lemon  juice  or  any  acid  medicines 
and  acid  drinks.  Even  the  spoon  that  has  stirred  them,  unless 
rinsed,  if  laid  on  marble  will  be  likely  to  destroy  the  polish. 

Kerosene  Lamps. — Fill  kerosene  lamps  about  three-quarters 
full  of  oil;  if  entirely  full  it  will  leave  no  room  for  the  expansion 
of  gases,  and  the  oil  will  ooze  out  of  the  screw  top.  With  a  soft 
paper  wipe  the  wick,  being  careful  to  remove  all  the  charred  par- 
ticles. This  will  give  a  straighter  wick  than  to  cut  with  the  scissors. 
Wash  and  wipe  the  chimney  like  any  piece  of  glass  (see  page  248), 
and  with  soap  and  water  wash  the  lamp  itself.  By  keeping  the 
wick  turned  down  in  the  burner  when  not  in  use,  and  by  boiling 
the  wick  and  burner  in  strong  soap  suds  or  soda  and  water  at  least 
once  in  two  weeks,  the  strong  odor  so  common  to  kerosene  lamps  is 
rarely  present.  Attend  to  the  lamps  in  the  morning,  and  then  they 
are  ready,  for  it  is  a  bad  plan  to  do  such  work  after  dark. 

BED  ROOM— CLEANING  AND  CARE 

To  Clean  a  Bed. — The  care  of  the  bed  is  one  of  the  special 
problems  which  must  be  considered  in  addition  to  the  general 
methods  of  cleaning  rooms. 

The  bed  frame  should  be  kept  dusted;  if  of  enamel  or  wood,  it 
may  be  cleaned  as  such ;  if  brass,  the  use  of  a  little  lemon  or  linseed 
oil  on  the  cloth  will  do  much  to  keep  the  shellac  soft  and  prevent  its 
cracking  because  too  dry. 

Springs. — Wipe  the  springs  with  a  soft  cloth  and  two  or  three 
drops  of  lemon  oil.  To  say  use  oil,  need  in  no  way  mean  to  use 
enough  to  grease  the  mattress.  If  the  springs  are  box  springs, 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  251 

brush  thoroughly  to  keep  free  from  dust;  if  one  has  a  vacuum 
cleaner  it  will  give  most  satisfactory  results.  The  springs  should 
be  dusted  often  enough  to  keep  free  from  dust. 

The  mattress  should  be  brushed  and  beaten  with  a  flat  rattan 
beater  at  least  once  a  month.  The  mattress  should  be  aired  every 
day  and  turned  (Fig.  150).  Turning  a  mattress  keeps  it  in  good 
shape  and  makes  it  wear  more  evenly.  Each  day  the  bedroom  should 
be  thoroughly  aired,  and  at  the  same  time  the  bed  can  be  aired. 
Put  a  chair  at  the  foot  of  the  bed  and  throw  the  bedding  back  off 
the  bed  on  to  the  chair — one  layer  at  a  time.  This  will  air  the 
bedding  and  allow  the  mattress  to  air  when  the  bedroom  is  aired 


FIG.  150.— Airing  the  bed. 


each  day.  Two  or  three  times  a  week  take  all  bedding  off  the  bed, 
spread  it  over  two  chairs  so  as  to  keep  it  from  getting  on  the  floor 
and  soiling.  There  is  no  need  to  dangle  bedding  out  of  the  window, 
for  then  it  is  likely  to  wipe  the  side  of  the  house  and  get  soiled. 
A  good  way  to  air  the  mattress  is  to  stand  it  up  against  the  wall 
or  draw  it  over  the  foot-board. 

To  Make  the  Bed. — Mattress  Cover. — If  one  keeps  a  mattress 
cover  on  the  mattress,  as  was  suggested  on  page  192,  it  is  not  taken 
off  except  as  the  mattress  is  cleaned. 

Mattress  Pad.— Sometimes  this  is  large  enough  to  tuck  in ;  if 
so,  it  should  be  stretched  very  tight  so  as  to  be  free  from  wrinkles. 
More  often  it  just  fits  the  top  of  the  mattress,  and  in  that  case  the 
sheet  holds  it  in  place  (Fig.  151). 


252 


HOUSEWIFERY 


The  lower  sheet  is  put  on  with  the  wide  hem  at  the  top  and  with 
the  right  side  up.  To  make  the  bed  more  comfortable  and  also  to 
have  the  sheets  wear  better,  be  sure  to  tuck  the  sheet  in  well  at  the 
top  and  to  put  the  sheet  on  very  straight.  If  the1  suggestion  that  is 
given  in  the  chapter  on  Furnishings  is  followed,  the  housewife  will 
buy  her  sheets  enough  larger  than  the  mattreiss  to  have  at  Idast  a 
half -yard  to  tuck  in  on  all  sides  of  the  bed.  If  a  lower  sheet  is  short, 
tuck  it  in  well  at  the  top,  and  there  will  be  enough  below  to  cover  the 


FIG.  151. — Enamel  bed  with  woven  wire  spring,  imperial  edge  mattress  and  quilted  bed  pad. 


mattress  even  if  it  does  not  tuck  in.  The  hospital  tuck-in  of  sheets 
can  easily  be  used  in  the  home,  and  after  one  becomes  accustomed 
to  turning  in  the  corners  of  the  sheets  it  is,  so  easy  and  makes  the 
bed  so  much  better  looking,  that  one  wonders  why  it  has  not  always 
been  done. 

To  make  the  bed  hospital  fashion,  tuck  in  the  sheet  at  the  bottom 
and  the  top,  drawing  it  in  both  directions  until  very  tight;  then 
mitre  the  corners  by  bringing  the  corner  of  the  sheet  around  the 
corner  of  the  mattress  to  the  sides  of  the  bed,  box  fashion  (Fig. 
152)  ;  meantime  have  the  side  part  of  the  sheet  up  on  the  mattress 
out  of  the  way,  to  drop  down  only  after  the  corner  is  mitred.  Turn 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  253 


FIG.   152. — First  step  in  making  a  square  corner. 


FIG.  153. — Second  step  in  making  a  square  corner. 


254  HOUSEWIFERY 

the  tuck-in  part  of  the  corner  under  the  side  of  the  mattress  (Fig. 
153),  finishing  the  mitred  corner;  then  bring  down  the  side  of  the 
sheet  under  the  mattress.  The  lower  sheet  is  mitred  at  all  four 
corners,  while  the  upper  sheet  and  blanket  are  done  at  the  foot. 
Sometimes  the  border  on  the  blanket  helps  one  to  see  how  the  fold 
is  placed  because  the  border  as  a  guiding  line  goes  around  the  foot 
of  the  mattress  just  as  far  as  it  lasts. 

The  Upper  Sheet. — Put  this  on  with  the  right  side  down  and 
the  wide  hem  at  the  top,  which  brings  the  turn-back  of  the  sheet 
right  side  up  (Fig.  154).  A  sheet  that  fits  the  bed  well  will  have 
a  good  wide  turn-back  which  protects  the  blanket. 

Blankets. — The  blanket  comes  next  to  the  sheet,  and  economy 
teaches  that  it'  is  better  to  cut  the  pair  of  blankets  apart,  bind  them 
and  use  separately.  Put  the  blanket  on  like  the  sheet,  and  when  it 
fits  the  bed  it  will  come  up  to  the  fold  of  the  sheet  as  it  is  turned 
back  over  the  blanket,  about  ten  inches  from  the  head  of  the  bed 
(Fig.  155). 

The  spread  or  counterpane  is  arranged  differently  on  different 
types  of  beds.  The  wooden  beds  give  a  place  to  tuck  in  the  counter- 
pane, while  the  cots  and  brass  beds  look  better  when  made  up  so  that 
less  of  the  bed  frame  shows.  A  valance  makes  a  pretty  finish  and 
usually  the  spread  meets  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  bed  looks  quaint 
and  attractive. 

The  bed  for  a  sick  person  is  made  up  like  any  other  bed  that 
has  the  mitred  corners,  except  that  in  cases  of  severe  illness,  when 
the  patient  is  quite  helpless,  a  draw-sheet  is  put  on  top  of  the  lower 
sheet.  This  draw-sheet  is  -a  strong  sheet  folded  in  half  with  hems 
together.  These  hems  are  strong  enough  to  resist  tearing  and  slough- 
ing down  in  the  bed  as  the  patient  slides  down  (Fig.  156).  Place 
this  draw-sheet  so  it  will  come  under  the  heavy  part  of  the  body  as 
the  patient  lies  in  bed.  Stretch  it  tight  and  tuck  it  well  under  the 
mattress.  In  severe  cases  this  draw-sheet  takes  the  place  of  the 
lower  sheet  and  the  lower  sheet  becomes  more  a  cover  to  the  mattress, 
not  often  changed,  even  pinned  with  safety  pins  to  the  corners 
of  the  mattress.  The  draw-sheet  is  easily  changed,  with  less  dis- 
comfort to  the  patient;  the  necessary  lifting  of  the  patient  can  be 
done  by  two  people,  one  at  each  side  of  the  bed,  making  the  sheet 
like  a  hammock.  It  can  also  be  changed  without  lifting  the  patient, 
by  rolling  the  patient  first  to  one  side  of  the  bed,  while  the  sheet  is 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS 


255 


FIG.   154. — The  corner  finished. 


FIG.  155. — Blanket  in  place  showing  square  corner  and  sheet  protection. 

spread  over  one-half  of  the  bed,  then  to  the  other  side  of  the  bed 
upon  the  fresh  sheet,  which  can  then  be  stretched  over  the  whole 
mattress.  For  a  long  sickness  the  bed  frame  may  be  raised  on  heavy 


256 


HOUSEWIFERY 


FIG.  156. — Bed  made  with  draw  sheet. 


FIQ.  157. — A  home  bed  raised  on  blocks.    Also,  invalid's  bed  stand. 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS 


257 


blocks,  making  it  much,  easier  for  the  nurse ;  blocks  of  wood  with  a 
place  hollowed  out  for  the  casters  so  that  the  bed  will  be  steady  are 
satisfactory  (Fig.  157).  If  blocks  are  used  without  a  hollow  in 
them,  take  out  the  casters  so  that  the  bed  cannot  possibly  roll  when 
upon  the  blocks. 

To  Prepare  Bed  for  Night. — To  save  the  good  day-spread, 
take  it  off  arid  fold  carefully  so  it  will  be  ready  to  go  back  on  the 


Fia.  158. — Preparing  bed  for  night. 

bed  in  the  morning  looking  fresh.  A  sheet  or  light  Marseilles  spread 
for  night  use  may  be  made  up  under  the  day-spread,  or  a  sheet  may 
be  spread  over  the  blanket  at  night  to  keep  it  clean.  It  quite  pays 
to  do  this  as  the  blanket  keeps  clean  much  longer.  Turn  down  the 
sheet  and  the  blanket  by  turning  back  the  corner  far  enough  so  that 
the  occupant  need  not  feel  it  necessary  to  pull  the  bed  to  pieces  to  get 
into  it  (Fig.  158). 

CLEANING  OF  BATHROOM  FURNISHINGS 
Care  of  Porcelain  and  Enamelled  Iron. — Whether  in  a  bath- 
tub, wash  basin,  or  washtub,  porcelain  needs  the  same  kind  of  care. 
If  each  time  it  is  used,  it  is  washed  with  soap  suds,  rinsed,  and 
17 


258 


HOUSEWIFERY 


wiped  dry,  it  can  be  kept  in  good  condition.  Water  leaves  it 
stained  by  making  water  marks,  and  if  the  water  has  iron  in  it,  as  it 
dries  it  leaves  a  yellow  tint  which  slowly  discolors  porcelain.  Leaky 
faucets  produce  iron  rust  stains.  These  stains  may  be  rubbed  off 
with  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  provided  the  stain  is  not  of  too  long 
standing.  For  what  seems  to  be  a  more  permanent  stain,  moisten 
a  small  wad  of  toilet  paper  with  a  few  drops  of  dilute  oxalic  acid  or 
hydrochloric  acid  (both  poisons)  and  wipe  the  stain;  then  when  it 
is  dissolved,  wash  the  porcelain  with  soapy  water.  The  paper  that 


FIG.   159. — Metal  forceps  for  cleaning  flush  closet. 

has  been  used  can  be  burned,  or  put  into  the  toilet.  To  dilute 
acids,  use  equal  amounts  of  acid  and  water;  pour  the  acid  into  the 
water.  The  stains  from  soiled  soapy  water  will  clean  off  with  kero- 
sene. No  scratchy  cleaner  should  be  used  with  porcelain  or  enamel- 
lined  plumbing  fixtures.  The  use  of  a  gritty  or  scratchy  cleaner 
produces  a  multitude  of  tiny  scratches  which  soon  look  like  dirt  and 
wear.  Scratches  cannot  be  taken  off  porcelain.  As  cleaners, 
whiting  or  porcella,  applied  with  a  damp  cloth,  will  give  the  best 
results. 

Flush  Closets. — A  daily  washing  of  flush  closets  can  be  done 
by  a  ten-cent  string  mop,  or  by  soapy  water  in  the  metal  forceps 
which  have  been  made  for  the  purpose  (Fig.  159).  Soap  and  water 
is  a  good  sterilizer  for  every-day  work;  but  for  occasional  special 
cleanings,  washing  powders  may  be  used,  or  dissolved  soda,  chloride 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  259 

of  lime,  or  potassium  permanganate.  Put  any  of  them  down  the 
flush  closet,  let  stand  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  then  flush 
thoroughly.  The  washing  powders  introduce  soap  and  soda  to- 
gether; the  chloride  of  lime  may  be  used  directly  from  the  can, 
or  the  sediment  left  from  making1  Javelle  water  (see  page  138)  may 
be  used  as  a  disinfectant. 

In  using  potassium  permanganate  to  sterilize  flush  closets,  make 
up  a  solution  in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon  of  the  crystals  to  one 
quart  of  water.  The  solution  will  be  a  rich  purple  color,  and  if  it 
is  to  be  kept,  it  should  be  carefully  labelled.  Potassium  perman- 
ganate used  in  the  same  proportion  makes  an  excellent  floor  stain ;  as 
it  dries,  it  oxidizes  and  turns  a  rich  brown. 

Handles. — All  handles  in  the  bathroom — the  pull  of  the  flush 
closet,  the  faucet  handles,  the  door  knobs — should  have  special  and 
frequent  cleaning.  The  scientist  tells  us  that  the  hand  is  a  most 
important  link  in  the  transfer  of  disease  germs. 

To  Clean  Combs. — Combs  should  be  regularly  cleaned  in  a 
sanitary  way  by  soaking  the  comb  in  cool  water  to  which  a  few  drops 
of  ammonia  have  been  added.  This  will  loosen  the  dirt  and  will 
not  discolor  the  comb.  After  soaking  about  one-half  hour,  an  ordi- 
nary brush  like  a  nail  brush,  will  clean  the  comb  finally.  Rinse 
and  wipe  dry.  In  a  less  sanitary  way  a  comb  may  be  dry  cleaned 
by  a  stiff  brush  or  by  one  of  the  little  cleaners  that  may  be  found 
on  the  market.  One  is  made  of  horse  hair,  another  of  white  cord, 
which  may  be  worked  back  and  forth  between  the  teeth  of  the 
comb;  a  third  is  a  little  fine  steel  brush  which  brushes  the  comb 
clean.  If  any  of  these  cleaners  are  used,  be  careful  to  see  that  they 
are  kept  clean. 

CLEANING  OF  BRUSHES 

As  hot  water  and  strong  soda  soaps  yellow  the  bristles  of  brushes, 
and  soften  them,  wash  brushes  by  shaking  them  up  and  down  in 
cool  water  to  which  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  have  been  added. 
Rinse  in  cool  water  and  shake  out  all  the  water  possible.  Stand  in 
the  air  to  dry  with  bristles  down  in  such  a  way  that  the  water  will 
run  out  of  the  bristles  away  from  the  back.  Very  soft-fibred  brushes 
had  better  be  hung  with  bristles  down  to  dry,  as  the  bristles  would 
spread  under  the  weight  of  the  back  if  stood  to  dry.  This  method 
of  cleaning  applies  to  every  kind  of  brush  which  is  used  in  the  house. 


260  HOUSEWIFERY 

METALS 

Metals  are  discolored  by  water  spots,  grease  films  from  the  air, 
or  from  food,  soot,  and  charred  food,  or  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
and  sulphur  fumes  combining  with  the  metal,  producing  oxides  and 
sulphides  of  the  metal.  Metals  are  also  discolored  by  other  chemi- 
cals; as  salt  discolors  aluminum. 

Saponifying  the  grease  film  is  an  easy  way  to  remove  that  kind  of 
soil.  Soap  and  water,  or  dissolved  washing  soda  and  water,  are  the 
two  agents  commonly  used. 

Friction,  such  as  rubbing  with  a  soft  cloth  or  a  chamois,  will 
remove  light  discolorations  and  will  assist  the  soap  and  water  just 
as  in  any  dish  washing.  Heavier  friction,  such  as  is  secured  by  a 
paste  of  whiting  with  alcohol  or  water,  rottenstone,  pumice,  buffing 
wheel,  ashes,  or  sand,  is  needed  for  deeper  discolorations  of  the 
sturdy  metals,  and  to  remove  dirt  and  grime  which  have  adhered  to 
the  metal. 

The  solvent  action  of  chemicals  is  quite  an  everyday  way  of 
dissolving  oxides  and  sulphides  of  the  metal.  The  method  is  quicker 
than  the  friction  or  saponifying  method  alone.  Some  acid  foods, 
such  as  tomato,  rhubarb,  lemon,  vinegar,  or  cream  of  tartar,  often 
furnish  enough  acid  and  are  safe  to  use  as  cleaners.  Oxalic  acid  is 
a  stronger  acid,  but  because  it  is  a  poison  it -should  be  used  with 
great  care.  One  hesitates  to  have  such  things  about  in  any  cleaning, 
and  cleaning  a  cooking  and  a  serving  dish  with  a  poison  should 
mean  most  careful  work  in  order  to  be  assured  that  no  acid  remains. 
The  dish  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and  water,  followed 
by  a  hot  rinse,  to  remove  the  last  trace  of  the  acid. 

Concentrated  oxalic  acid  may  be  bought  at  the  drug  store,  or  if 
the  housewife  prefers  to  buy  the  acid  in  crystal  form,  it  is  easy 
to  make  a  concentrated  solution  by  a  little  more  than  enough  water 
to  cover  the  crystals.  Allow  to  stand  long  enough  for  the  crystals 
to  dissolve;  use  the  liquid  from  this  mixture.  It  is  always  a  con- 
centrated solution  as  long  as  undissolved  crystals  remain  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar.  Dilute  for  use  by  adding  a  given  quantity  of  acid 
to  an  equal  quantity  of  water.  (The  acid  and  Housewife's  Metal 
Polish  recipe  given  below  are  poisons.) 

The  housewife  shmild  consider  a  number  of  things  in  cleaning 
metals.  All  metals  should  be  cleaned  by  the  method  which  means 
the  least  loss,  the  least  roughening,  and  the  least  expense  both  as 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  261 

to  time  and  effort,  and  the  best  color  as  a  finish.  This  is  especially 
true  for  expensive  metals  like  gold  and  silver.  Chemicals  are  in- 
clined to  leave  a  very  bright  glaring  metal  surface,  to  which  one  may 
apply  the  term  flat,  not  a  rich  lustre  as  the  metal  at  its  best  should 
have.  Such  cleaning  often  means  that  the  surface  does  not  last  so 
long.  Metals,  especially  silver,  are  roughened  by  cleaning  as  the 
microscope  will  show;  the  aluminum  pan  method  of  cleaning  silver 
gives  less  roughening  and  shows  the  flat  color  tone.  Weighing  the 
metal  before  cleaning  and  after  would  be  the  only  way  to  tell  which 
method  is  the  most  destructive  to  the  metal. 

With  the  suggestions  given  concerning  the  cleaning  of  all  metals, 
the  following  directions  may  be  used  for  the  cleaning  of  special 
metals. 

Agate. — Boil  in  soda  water  to  remove  grease.  Rub  with  fine 
abrasive.  Wash  in  hot  soapsuds.  Wipe  dry. 

Aluminum. — Wash  in  hot  soap  and  water.  Polish  with  steel 
wool,  or  whiting  moistened  with  alcohol.  Dilute  acid  may  be  used 
(page  94).  Alkalies  darken  aluminum.  Einse  in  hot  water.  Wipe 
dry. 

Brass. — If  badly  tarnished,  wash  in  soda  solution  to  remove 
grease.  Clean  with  housewife's  solution : 

Housewife's  Metal  Polish  for  Brass  and  Copper. 
2'  oz.  dilute  oxalic  acid,  %  cup 
1  box  electro-silicon 
4  oz.  wood  alcohol,  %  cup 
1  pt.  kerosene  (1  pt.  =  16  liquid  oz.) 

Add  the  acid  to  the  water,  instead  of  water  to  acid,  to  avoid  its  sput- 
tering. Mix  the  recipe  by  putting  the  silicon  in  a  bottle;  add  the  alco- 
hol, oxalic  acid,  and  kerosene.  Shake  well  each  time  before  using. 

Clean  with  dilute  oxalic  acid,  or  strong  lemon  juice  or  vinegar, 
and  fine  abrasive ;  wash  in  plenty  of  water.  Polish  with  rottenstone 
or  with  metal  polish.  Wipe  dry  with  clean  soft  cloth. 

Copper. — Same  as  brass. 

Iron. — Boil  in  strong  solution  of  soda  and  water  to  remove 
grease.  Rub  with  any  good  abrasive  (use  newspaper  instead  of 
cloth) .  Wash  in  hot  soapsuds.  Rinse  in  hot  water.  Dry  while  hot. 

Wrought  Iron. — Rub  with  a  soft  cloth  devoid  of  lint;  use  a  thin 
oil  as  kerosene,  lemon  oil,  or  a  prepared  mixture,  and  rub  thoroughly. 

Nickel. — Wash  with  soap  and  water.    Polish  with  whiting  moist- 


262  HOUSEWIFERY 

ened  with  alcohol,  ammonia,  or  water.  (Do  not  use  any  chemicals 
or  coarse  abrasive  on  nickel.)  Wipe  dry. 

Pewter  or  Britannia  Ware. — Use  any  fine  abrasive,  as  metal 
is  very  soft  and  scratches  easily ;  whiting  and  oil,  rottenstoiie  and  oil, 
fine  steel  wool  and  oil.  Wash  with  hot  soapsuds.  Wipe  dry. 

Porcelain. — For  general  cleaning,  wash  with  soap  and  water. 
Polish  with  fine  powder  (porcella  or  whiting).  Wipe  dry. 

For  Stains. — Iron  rust :  dilute  hydrochloric  acid ;  apply  with  soft 
cloth  or  tissue  paper ;  wash  off  acid  with  soap  and  water. 

Other  stains:  kerosene — apply  with  soft  cloth  or  tissue  paper; 
wash  with  soap  and  water ;  wipe  dry. 

Steel. — If  greasy,  clean  as  iron.  Rub  with  any  fine  abrasive 
(bath  brick  best) ;  if  knives,  apply  with  cork  or  wad  of  paper  (avoid 
soaking  handles).  Wash  in  warm  soapsuds.  Wipe  dry.  If  rusty, 
rub  with  oil  and  fine  abrasive  like  rottenstone. 

Tin. — Place  in  hot  soda  solution  for  a  few  (3-5)  minutes  to  re- 
move grease  (longer  will  tend  to  dissolve  the  tin,  leaving  iron  sur- 
face). Eub  with  any  fine  abrasive,  as  whiting.  Wash  in  hot  soap- 
suds. Rinse  in  hot  water.  Wipe  dry  while  hot  to  prevent  rust. 

Zinc. — Rub  hard  with  whiting  moistened  with  water  or  kero- 
sene. Hot  vinegar  may  be  used.  Wash  with  hot  soapsuds.  Wipe 
dry. 

Cleaning  Silver. — Washing. — The  careless  gathering  of  dishes 
for  dishwashing  brings  kitchen  knives  and  forks  into  contact  with  the 
silver,  and  subjects  it  three  times  daily  to  the  wear  and  tear  of 
scratches  and  dents.  This  is  most  quickly  discovered  on  silver  which 
is  of  the  severely  plain  pattern.  The  first  point,  then,  in  the  care 
of  silver  is  in  careful  sorting  and  washing. 

The  best  plan  is  to  sort  the  silver  and  put  it  in  a  papier  mache 
holder.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  special  holder  any  deep  pitcher 
or  bowl,  deep  enough  to  allow  water  to  come  over  the  soiled  part  of 
the  silver,  may  be  used.  The  best  utensils  of  this  kind  are  pur- 
chasable with  two  compartments,  one  for  the  knives,  which  are 
always  heavy  and  scratch  the  spoons  and  forks;  and  an  adjoining 
compartment  for  the  lighter  silver.  The  larger  pieces  should  be 
kept  separate  from  one  another,  because  stacking  will  give  oppor- 
tunity for  them  to  rub  and  scratch. 

Wash  the  silver  in  clean,  hot,  soapy  water,  give  it  a  hot  rinse,  and 
wipe  very  dry  with  a  clean  towel.  If  this  is  done  carefully  with 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  263 

every  piece  of  silver  used  on  the  table,  that  silver  will  need  less  of 
the  so-called  weekly  or  semi-monthly  cleaning.  Washing  of  silver 
does  much  less  harm  than  scouring.  Be  careful  in  taking  the  silver 
from  the  wash  water  not  to  mix  the  knives  with  the  forks,  and  do 
not  throw  them  upon  tables  or  trays.  They  are  drained  more  satis- 
factorily on  a  towel.  This  is  especially  true  of  silver  vegetable 
dishes,  creamers,  and  sugar  bowls ;  it  is  not  so  easy  to  keep  the  small 
silver  from  scratching.  Even  silver  that  is  not  often  used  should 
have  a  frequent  washing  in  hot  soapy  water,  to  prevent  tarnish. 
This  will  save  cleaning. 

Cleaning. — All  silver  will  need  cleaning  at  some  time,  whether 
used  frequently  or  not.  Some  housewives  do  this  cleaning  regularly 
once  a  week.  This  involves  unnecessary  wear  on  the  silver,  as  well 
as  unnecessary  tax  on  the  worker,  and  can  be  done  quite  as  well 
only  once  in  two  weeks,  if  the  dining-room  silverware  is  promptly 
and  thoroughly  washed  after  each  use,  and  if  the  silver  ornaments, 
door  knobs,  bureau  silver,  etc.,  are  rubbed  with  a  soft  cloth  when  the 
dusting  is  done. 

Soft  cloths  should  be  on  hand  for  the  rubbing  of  the  silver. 
White  outing  flannel  gives  perhaps  the  best  all-around  satisfaction, 
because  it  is  very  soft  and  can  be  washed  out  easily  by  means  of 
warm  soapy  water. 

Assemble  all  silver  tools  and  supplies.  Apply  the  polish  with  a 
clean  soft  cloth  and  rub  thoroughly,  then  polish  with  another  clean 
soft  cloth.  If  silver  is  much  ornamented,  soft  brushes  will  have 
to  be  used.  (See  Cleaning  Equipment,  page  119.) 

If  the  silver  cleaning  pan  (see  chapter  on  Supplies,  page  134), 
is  used,  one  tablespoonful  each  of  baking  soda  and  salt  are  used  to 
every  quart  of  water ;  this  mixture  is  right  for  quick  cleaning  action. 
If  the  housewife  does  not  have  a  regular  cleaning  pan,  she  may 
substitute  a  clean  bright  aluminum  saucepan,  with  one  tablespoon- 
ful each  of  salt  and  baking  soda,  or  one  teaspoonful  of  soap  powder, 
to  each  quart  of  water.  Have  the  water  hot,  the  salt  and  soda 
measured,  and  the  silver  ready  to  put  into  the  pan  as  soon  as  the  salt 
and  soda  have  been  added  to  the  water.  There  will  be  a  strong 
effervescence  for  the  first  few  seconds,  for  which  reason  the  pan  must 
not  be  too  full  of  water. 

After  cleaning  silver,  have  ready  a  pan  of  hot  soapy  water,  with  a 
drop  or  two  of  ammonia,  and  clean  towels  for  drying.  Wash  the 


264  HOUSEWIFERY 

polished  silver,  rinse,  and  dry,  according  to  the  directions  given 
above  for  washing.  In  washing  hand  mirrors,  care  should  be  taken 
that  no  water  gets  in  behind  the  glass,  as  the  mirror  may  be  spoiled. 
No  silver  should  be  used  after  cleaning  without  being  washed. 
It  not  only  does  not  look  so  well,  but  is  not  in  a  suitable  condition 
to  use. 

WASHING  DISHES 

Preparation.— A  little  time  spent  in  preparing  dishes  for 
washing  will  in  the  end  be  much  time  gained.  To  prepare  dishes 
for  washing,  all  scraps  of  food  should  be  removed.  This  is  usually 
called  scraping  the  dishes,  but  it  is  better  if  wiping  is  the  process 
actually  employed,  because  the  sharp  edges  of  knives  used  in  scraping 
harm  fine  dishes.  A  little  wad  of  paper  or  the  skin  of  a  baked  potato 
makes  an  excellent  wiper.  A  rubber  scraper  is  made  for  the  purpose, 
but  it  costs  ten  cents,  and  is  only  one  thing  more  to  keep  clean. 

As  the  dishes  are  cleaned  of  all  particles  of  food,  they  may  be 
stacked  in  piles  of  plates,  saucers,  etc. ;  silverware  put  in  a  pitcher 
or  pan  with  water;  glasses  or  cups  gathered  together,  and  heavier 
platters  and  vegetable  dishes  placed  together.  Cooking  utensils  are 
better  kept  by  themselves  because  they  are  too  heavy  to  be  washed 
with  the  better  dishes. 

Kitchen  Utensils. — Most  people  dislike  to  wash  the  pots  and 
pans ;  but  if  they  are  put  to  soak  the  minute  they  are  emptied,  with 
a  little  soap  powder  or  dissolved  soda  to  cut  the  grease,  with  cold 
water  for  the  egg  and  milk  dishes,  and  hot  water  for  the  greasy 
and  sugary  dishes,  it  will  be  found  that  they  have  cleaned  themselves 
to  such  an  extent  that  their  washing  is  no  harder  than  that  of  china. 
The  small  quantity  of  grease  that  adheres  to  frying  pans  may  be 
wiped  out  with  paper  before  putting  them  to  soak.  It  will  be  found 
that  they  will  wash  with  hot  soapy  water  like  any  dish.  Use  a 
wooden  skewer  to  reach  corners. 

Washing. — Now  that  the  dishes  are  ready  to  be  washed,  have 
a  clean  dishpan  full  of  hot  soapy  water.  The  dishes  can  stand  any 
heat  that  is  comfortable  to  the  hands. 

With  a  clean  dish  cloth,  wash  the  glassware  first.  Einse  in  a 
second  pan  of  water  hotter  than  the  wash  water,  and  stand  to  drain 
on  a  drainboard  at  the  side  of  the  sink,  in  a  wire  dish  drainer 
(Fig.  27),  or  on  a  large  tray,  using  a  towel  on  which  to  stand  the 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  265 

glasses  to  prevent  chipping  the  edges  of  them.  While  still  warm 
the  glasses  should  be  wiped  with  a  perfectly  clean  glass  towel, 
one  that  is  free  from  lint. 

The  silver  should  be  the  next  pile  washed.  The  hot  water 
which  has  washed  the  glasses  may  be  used  for  the  silver.  Have 
plenty  of  soap  in  this  water,  and  take  time  to  give  the  silver  a 
good  rubbing  with  soap,  for  this  rubbing,  followed  with  a  very  hot 
rinse,  will  keep  the  silver  bright.  Silver  washed  thoroughly  every 
day  will  lessen  the  work  of  the  special  cleaning  (page  133) .  While 
still  hot,  wipe  the  silver  very  dry. 

China. — A  second  clear  wash  water  should  be  prepared  and  the 
rest  of  the  dishes  washed;  take  thought  to  wash  the  cleanest  ones 
first.  If  a  very  hot  rinse  is  used  for  these  dishes  and  they  are  placed 
on  a  wire  dish  drainer  (which  may  be  purchased  for  a  few  cents),  the 
dishes  will  need  little  wiping.  Fine  gold  decorated  dishes  and  cut 
glass  must  not  have  as  hot  a  rinse  as  other  dishes.  The  reason 
that  the  dish  drainer  is  worth  many  times  its  cost  is  that  it  eliminates 
much  of  the  work  of  wiping,  and  the  consequent  use  of  many  towels, 
and  the  wiping  with  towels  that  have  been  used  too  long  and  are  no 
longer  fresh ;  if  the  rinse  is  very  hot,  and  the  dishes  are  placed  in  the 
rack,  they  will  dry  while  the  heavier  dishes  are  being  washed. 
Grouping  the  dishes  at  the  beginning  means  that  the  same  group  or 
pile  is  now  ready  to  be  put  away  without  further  sorting. 

Knives. — The  knives  are  usually  separated  and  washed  by  them- 
selves for  three  reasons :  first,  because  they  are  heavy  and  are  likely 
to  scratch  the  silver  forks  and  spoons;  second,  if  they  have  pearl, 
bone  or  wooden  handles,  the  handles  should  be  kept  out  of  water, 
as  soaking*  takes  the  lustre  out  of  the  pearl  or  bone  and  yellows  it, 
while  wooden  handles  swell  in  water  so  that  they  gradually  loosen 
and  come  off;  a  third  possible  reason  for  washing  them  by  them- 
selves is  that  the  blades,  if  of  steel,  need  to  be  scoured.  Pulverized 
bath  brick,  which  may  be  bought  in  packages  at  ten  cents  each,  with 
a  good  sized  flat  cork  will  make  the  cleaning  of  the  steel  easy  and 
quick  work.  If  a  cork  is  not  at  hand,  use  a  little  wad  of  paper,  as 
there  is  no  need  of  staining  or  wearing  a  hole  in  a  good  dish  cloth. 
Wipe  all  knives  dry  before  putting  away. 

Dish  Towels  and  Cloths. — It  is  essential  to  have  clean  dishes, 
not  only  for  the  looks  of  the  dishes,  but  especially  because  the  dish 
comes  in  such  close  contact  with  the  food  that  it  must  be  absolutely 


266  HOUSEWIFERY 

clean.  If  the  dishes  have  been  properly  prepared  for  washing,  and 
have  been  well  washed,  and  the  towels  used  only  for  wiping  dishes, 
once  a  day  would  be  sufficient  for  a  washing  out  of  the  dish  towels 
themselves.  The  dish-cloths,  however,  should  be  washed  after  each 
dishwashing.  At  the  times  when  the  towels  are  not  washed,  they 
should  be  hung  out,  singly,  to  dry,  always  in  the  air,  and  with  as 
much  sun  as  possible.  Warm  soapy  water  is  best  for  washing  towels, 
and  two  or  three  times  a  week  they  may  have,  besides  the  washing, 
a  few  minutes  boil.  After  washing,  boil  the  clean  towels ;  rub  them 
thoroughly  with  soap,  put  in  a  pan  of  cold  water,  and  heat  to  the 
boiling  point.  Boil  five  minutes,  follow  with  a  hot  rinse,  then  a 
cold,  and  hang  to  dry. 

To  Clean  the  Sink. — The  sink  should  have  care  three  times 
daily.  The  first  thing  that  has  been  done  toward  its  care  is  scraping 
or  wiping  the  dishes  before  washing,  so  that  the  dish  water  is  clean 
and  without  particles  of  food  in  it.  This  is  necessary,  because  the 
grease  and  the  particles  of  food  clog  the  drain.  A  sink  strainer, 
which  is  preferably  of  the  type  of  a  wire  puree  sieve  rather  than 
the  kind  often  sold  under  the  name  of  sink  strainer,  should  be  kept 
in  the  bottom  of  the  sink  over  'the  drain  outlet,  so  that  all  water 
may  be  poured  through  it.  Never  pour  grease  into  the  sink,  for  first 
of  all,  it  is  wasteful ;  and  secondly,  when  it  cools  it  forms  a  coating  on 
the  inside  of  the  drain,  which,  if  through  carelessness,  it  is  allowed 
to  continue  to  form,  will  in  time  close  the  pipe.  The  little  grease 
which  is  bound  to  come  in  any  dishwater  will  not  stop  the  sink 
drain  if  after  each  dishwashing  the  pipe  is  flooded  with  hot  water. 
This  hot  water  liquefies  the  grease,  and  carries  it  down  and  out  of  the 
pipe.  If  washing  soda  is  used  to  cut  the  grease,  as  is  so  often  done, 
it  should  be  followed  with  an  abundance  of  very  hot  water,  otherwise 
the  soda  which  is  used  to  clean  the  sink,  and  the  grease  in  the  pipe, 
make  soft  soap  which  congeals  on  cooling  and  may  close  the  drain. 
The  hot  water  flushing  of  a  sink  three  times  a  day,  where  particles 
of  food  and  grease  have  been  carefully  kept  out  of  the  drain,  will 
almost  entirely  do  away  with  the  use  of  soda.  Finally,  wash  the 
sink  as  porcelain,  soapstone  or  iron  (see  pages  261  and  262).  Clean 
the  faucets  as  brass  or  nickel  (see  pages  260  and  261). 

Outline  for  Washing  Dishes. — Put  cooking  utensils  to  soak  as 
soon  as  emptied.  Egg,  milk,  and  flour  dishes  should  soak  in  cold 
water.  Sugar  and  fat  dishes  should  soak  in  hot  water.  Wipe  frying 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  267 

pans  with  paper ;  soak  in  hot  water  and  dissolved  soda.  Scrape  and 
pile  dishes  according  to  size  and  shape.  Keep  handles  of  knives 
and  eggbeater  out  of  water. 

In  General. — Wash  everything  in  hot  soapy  water.  Kinse  in  clear 
hot  water ;  drain,  and  if  necessary,  dry  while  hot.  Use  dishcloth  or 
brush  for  washing.  Use  wooden  skewer  for  corners. 

Glasses. — Wash  in  warm  soapy  water.  Rinse  in  clear  hot  water. 
Wipe  with  towel  free  from  lint. 

Silver. — 'Wash  in  hot  soapy  water.  Rub  silver  well.  Rinse  in 
very  hot  water.  Wipe  dry  with  very  clean  towel. 

China. — Wash  in  hot  soapy  water.  Rinse  in  hot  water.  Drain 
or  dry. 

Steel  Knives. — Scour  with  bath  brick  applied  with  a  cork. 

Wood  (Spoons,  Table  Top). — Wash  with  cold  water.  Scrub 
with  an  abrasive  material  and  scrub  brush.  Rinse  well. 

Dough  Boards. — Soak  with  cold  water  to  soften  dough.  Wash 
as  above,  using  cold  water  and  an  abrasive  cleaner  rather  than  soap. 

Utensils. — Wash  inside  and  outside. 

Supplies : 

Ammonia  Scouring  powder  or  soap 

Bath  brick  for  knives  Soap 

Dissolved  soda  Washing  soda 

Metal  cleaner: 
silver 
coarser  material 

Equipment: 

Bottle   brush  Sink  strainer 

Cork  Soap    dish 

Dish  cloth  Soap  shaker  with  soap  scraps 

Dish  pan  Towels    for 

Dish  drainer  china  and  glass 

Dish  mop  kitchen 

Metal  mesh  pot  cleaner  hand 

Scrub  brush  Vegetable  brush 

Sink  brush  Dishwashing  machine 

CLEANING  STOVES 

As  we  clean  up  the  sink  after  each  meal,  so  should  we  care  for 
our  stoves.  They  will  not  only  be  much  less  of  a  care,  but  they  will 
look  better  and  be  always  ready  for  service.  All  stoves  may  be  kept 
in  good  condition  by  wiping  off,  while  still  warm,  any  grease  spat- 
terings  or  spilled  food,  with  a  crushed  newspaper.  Rub  the  stove 


268 


HOUSEWIFERY 


briskly  with  a  second  piece  of  paper,  and  the  stove  will  be  smooth 
and  black  enough  to  make  constant  blacking  unnecessary.  Any 
sticky  food  can  be  easily  washed  off  with  hot  soapsuds  again  using 
the  paper  in  preference  to  the  cloth,  so  that  there  will  be  no  dirty 
cloth,  either  lying  about  constantly  dirty,  or  having  to  be  washed. 
Once  or  twice  a  week,  the  stoves  (when  cold),  may  be  gone  over 


FIG.  160. — Cleaning  a  gas  stove. 

with  a  cloth  moistened  with  kerosene,  rubbing  them  thoroughly  until 
they  are  clean  and  bright. 

If  blacking  is  preferred  to  oil,  one  may  protect  the  hand  during 
the  process  by  using  paper  hags  which  are  usually  plentiful  in  the 
home.  The  stove  must  be  clean,  that  is,  free  from  particles  of  food, 
bits  of  coal,  wood  or  ashes,  before  applying  the  blacking.  Moisten 
the  blacking  with  a  little  warm  water,  and  with  a  dauber,  apply 
to  the  stove  either  before  lighting  the  fire,  or  when  the  fire  in  the  coal 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  269 

or  wood  stove  is  so  low  that  the  blacking  does  not  sputter  or  boil  on 
the  surface.  Polish  with  the  polishing  brush  as  soon  as  the  blacking 
is  dry.  Blacking  should  be  put  on  a  cool  stove  for  two  reasons: 
The  hot  stove  wastes  blacking,  and  some  blackings  contain  inflam- 
mable liquids  which  would  cause  fire.  It  takes  a  great  deal  of  time 
to  blacken  stoves,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dirt  involved,  and  the  oil 
will  give  a  much  better  looking  stove  with  less  effort. 

Gas  stoves  and  kerosene  stoves  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  by 
washing  with  soap  and  water,  or  soda  and  water  when  very  greasy, 
and  then  when  cold,  wiping  over  with  kerosene  or  a  mixture  of  two 
parts  kerosene  and  one  part  turpentine.  These  stoves  with  enamel 
finish  need  only  washing.  The  tray  under  the  gas  top  burners 
should  be  taken  out  regularly  and  cleaned. 

Burners  from  oil  and  gas  stoves  may  be  cleaned  by  detaching 
them  from  the  stove,  placing  in  a  pan  large  enough  to  hold  them, 
and  covering  with  washing  soda  and  water  (Fig.  160).  One-half 
to  one  pound  of  soda  may  be  used  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Bring  to 
boiling  point  and  let  boil  until  the  grease,  soot  and  charred  food 
sloughs  off.  Wipe  off  with  paper  or  an  old  brush,  rinse  with  hot 
water,  and  put  back  on  the  stove  to  dry  by  lighting  the  fire.  The 
nickel  on  the  stoves  should  be  kept  free  from  rust  with  a  little  kero- 
sene, lemon  or  linseed  oil,  and  can  be  washed  frequently.  Any  of 
the  metal  polishes  will  keep  it  bright.  (See  Cleaning  of  Nickel, 
page  261.) 

REFRIGERATOR.— CLEANING  AND  CARE 

Daily. — Wash  the  ice  before  putting  it  into  the  refrigerator. 

Do  not  wrap  the  ice ;  it  must  melt  in  order  to  keep  the  box  cold. 

Eemove  discolorations  on  porcelain  lining  with  whiting  or 
porcella  (see  page  262). 

Look  over  the  contents  and  plan  to  use  all  left-overs  while  per- 
fectly fresh. 

All  food  must  be  in  clean  utensils. 

Do  not  put  food  into  the  refrigerator  on  dining-room  china. 

Keep  food  in  the  section  of  the  refrigerator  intended  for  it. 

Do  not  allow  food  of  strong  odor  to  remain  uncovered  in  the 
refrigerator.  Covers  may  be  made  of  waxed  paper. 

Keep  food  such  as  broken  eggs,  mayonnaise  dressing,  etc., 
covered;  lettuce  and  parsley  should  be  washed  and  then  stored  in 


270 


HOUSEWIFERY 


clean  cloths  or  glass  jars,  without  water.  Unbroken  egg  yolks  may 
be  covered  with  water;  this  will  keep  them  from  drying;  change 
water  every  day. 


Fio.   161. — Cleaning  a  refrigerator. 


Charcoal,  unless  fresh,  has  no  power  to  absorb  odors.  To 
freshen,  boil  in  water  and  cool. 

Twice  a  Week. — Wash  thoroughly  the  outside  of  the  refrigera- 
tor with  a  damp  cloth,  and  dry. 

Wash  all  parts  of  the  inside  except  the  ice  section,  using  cold 


CLEANING  AND  CARE  OF  ROOMS  271 

water  to  which  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  have  been  added.  Soda 
water  may  be  used. 

Weekly. — Remove  ice  rack  and  scrub  it,  wash  in  soda  solution 
and  in  clear  cool  water.  Rinse  in  cold  water.  Boil  with  hot  soda 
water  once  in  two  weeks  (Fig.  161). 

Wash  shelves  and  walls,  using  hot  water  to  which  a  few  drops  of 
ammonia  have  been  added. 

Use  a  wooden  skewer  to  clean  grooves. 

Rinse  in  clear  hot  water. 

Dry  thoroughly. 

Wash  outside  of  refrigerator  with  a  damp  cloth,  then  dry 
thoroughly. 

General  Suggestions. — Keep  doors  of  refrigerator  closed. 

Do  not  use  cleaning  materials  like  soap  which  leave  a  strong 
odor ;  ammonia  or  soda  and  warm  water  are  the  best. 

Washing  a  refrigerator  with  hot  water  of  course  raises  its  tem- 
perature ;  so  use  cold  water  ordinarily.  Hot  water  is  necessary  occa- 
sionally because  it  cleans  better,  and  sterilizes  when  the  parts  are 
boiled  in  it. 

TO  CLEAN  FILTERS 

The  very  small  filters,  which  are  filled  with  cotton,  asbestos,  or 
pebbles  and  charcoal,  filter  very  rapidly.  Because  the  filtering  sub- 
stance is  in  small  amounts  and  of  very  porous  material,  such  a  filter 
cannot  be  considered  dependable.  To  increase  their  efficiency,  some 
small  filters  may  be  reversed  daily  by  turning  end  for  end  and 
flooding  the  filtering  medium ;  then  by  boiling  the  whole  filter  daily, 
it  may  be  made  temporarily  sterile.  Filters  with  pads  should  have 
the  pads  changed  regularly  each  day. 

Another  type  of  filter  is  made  of  stone  crocks,  set  one  upon 
the  other,  and  through  the  porous  material  of  the  bottom  of  the 
upper  crock  the  water  passes  by  gravity  to  the  lower  crock.  This 
filter  is  slow  in  its  action,  and  must  be  cleaned  regularly.  None  of 
these  can  be  safely  relied  upon  in  water  carrying  disease  germs. 

The  Pasteur  "  germ-proof  "  type  of  filter  with  proper  care  is 
more  to  be  depended  upon;  in  this,  the  water  is  forced  through  a 
porcelain  cylinder  from  the  outside.  It  can  be  cleaned  by  the  house- 
wife, by  shutting  off  the  inflow  of  water,  loosening  the  metal  band 
and  lifting  the  porcelain  tubes  carefully  from  the  outer  metal  or 


272  HOUSEWIFERY 

glass  cylinder ;  with  a  brush  wash  the  outside  of  the  tubes  to  remove 
deposit,  rinse  and  replace;  then  fasten  the  clamp  and  turn  on  the 
water.  This  does  not  give  a  sanitary  cleaning,  however,  and  de- 
pendence must  be  put  upon  replacing  the  filtering  cylinder  regularly 
with  a  sterile  one  and  sending  the  used  one  to  the  factory  to  be  re- 
baked.  Do  not  attempt  to  rebake  the  tubes  at  home,  as  the  house- 
wife's oven  is  no  more  suited  to  that  work  than  it  is  to  firing  china. 
The  supply  house  will  exchange  fresh  tubes  for  those  needing  to  be 
baked.  (See  chapter  or  Plumbing,  page  42.) 

The  filtering  problem  is  a  double  one,  to  remove  visible  sediment 
from  water,  and  various  filters  will  do  this ;  and  to  remove  invisible 
disease  and  other  germs,  which  cannot  be  certainly  accomplished 
by  the  household  filter.  The  only  reliance  to  be  placed  in  the  latter 
case  is  upon  having  the  water  boiled  before  using  it.  A  household 
filter  not  properly  cared  for  may  even  increase  the  bacteria  in  the 
water,  because  it  affords  a  place  in  the  uncared-for  filter  medium  for 
bacteria  to  multiply. 

SUGOESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  How  would  you  proceed  to  clean  a  brass  bed? 

2.  How  can  one  take  finger  marks  off  mahogany? 

3.  If  a  machine  is  very  greasy,  how  may  it  be  cleaned? 

4.  How  may  one  remove  a  rusty  deposit  in  the  bottom  of  a  water  bottle  ? 

5.  Make  a  set  of  rules  to  be  given  to  a  maid  for  cleaning  metals. 

6.  How  do  you  remove  burned  food  from,  an  enamel  saucepan  ? 

7.  List  a  number  of  economies  possible  today  in  cleaning. 

REFERENCES 

BROADHURST,  JEAN,  HOME  AND  COMMUNITY  HYGIENE.     J.  B.  Lippincott 

Company. 
BUCHANAN,  ESTELLE  D.,  and  ROBERT  E.,  HOUSEHOLD  BACTERIOLOGY.    Mac- 

millan  Co. 

CONN    H.  W.,  BACTERIA,  YEASTS  AND  MOLDS.     Ginn  &  Co. 
MACLEOD,  SARAH,  HANDBOOK  OF  CLEANING.     Harper  &  Bros. 
DONHAM,  AGNES,  MARKETING  AND  HOUSEWORK.    Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
RICHARDS,  E.  H.,  COST  OF  CLEANING.    Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 
TALBOT,  MARION,  HOUSE  SANITATION.     Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 


CHAPTEE  X 
CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION 

EENOVATION  is  renewal,  and  means  the  cost  in  time  and  money 
to  make  like  new.  It  is  economy  in  so  far  as  the  renovation  cost  of  an 
article  does  not  exceed  the  original  cost.  In  fact,  the  cost  of  reno- 
vation should  be  considered  well  by  the  housewife  when  she  pur- 
chases the  various  types  of  household  furnishings.  Beds,  bedding, 
carpets,  furniture,  kitchen  equipment — in  fact,  every  tool  or  uten- 
sil, all  furniture  and  furnishings,  should  be  purchased  only  after 
the  consideration  of  first  cost,  depreciation,  such  as  fading,  cracking, 
and  roughing,  and  renewal  cost.  Fabrics  may  justify  a  large  first 
cost  if  they  are  of  material  that  can  be  cleaned,  or  dyed,  or  which 
is  worthy  of  re-cutting.  To  pay  for  quality  under  such  conditions 
justifies  the  purchase. 

FABRICS 

The  first  and  most  common  type  of  renovation  is  laundering 
with  soap  and  water.  The  housewife  is  so  accustomed  to  this  process 
in  connection  with  her  clothing  that  she  rarely  stops  to  consider  it  as 
renovation.  However,  when  her  attention  is  directed  to  the  fact  that 
such  things  as  blankets,  curtains,  portieres,  etc.,  which  are  usually 
sent  to  the  dry  cleaning  establishment,  can  be  renovated  by  an  in- 
telligent use  of  soap  and  water,  the  process  acquires  a  new  signifi- 
cance. When  these  furnishings  are  sent  to  the  cleaner,  the  cost  of 
renewal  adds  materially  to  their  .original  cost,  and  so  may  not  repre- 
sent economy.  Careful  laundering  by  the  housewife  will  eliminate 
this  extra  cost,  with  HO  harm  to  the  fabrics.  And  the  chances  are 
that,  if  so  cleaned,  they  will  be  cleaned  as  frequently  as  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  fresh,  whereas  the  cost  of  dry  cleaning  makes  its  use 
infrequent. 

Fabric  stains  are  unsightly  and  make  a  garment  look  either  old 

or  untidy  if  not  removed.    The  stains  that  are  found  on  household 

fabrics  are  in  most  cases  possible  to  remove ;  they  will  always  come 

out  better  when  fresh.     For  that  reason,  let  the  housewife  try  to 

18  273 


274  HOUSEWIFERY 

remove  them  first  with  clear  cold  water,  as  half  the  stains  may  be 
washed  out  in  cold  water  without  further  work  and  with  no  harm 
clone  to  the  fabric. 

Stain  work  outfit:  Borax 

1  dropper  for  each  chemical  Chloroform   or   ether 

1  cup  Cream    of    tartar    or    salts    of 

1  bowl  lemon 

Blotting    paper    and    cloth    the  Detergent 

color     of     the     fabric,     or  Gasoline 

w.hite  and:  non-linting  Hydrochloric   acid 

Soft  cloth  Javelle   water 

Soft  brush  Lard  or  tallow 

Rtain  Re-  Agents:  Oxalic  acid 

Alcohol  Potassium   permanganate 

Ammonia  Soap 


Recipe  for  Detergent.  —  1%  oz.  white  castile  soap,  1  oz.  ether, 
1  oz.  alcohol,  4  oz.  ammonia. 

Cut  soap  fine  and  heat  in  one  pint  of  soft  water  until  dissolved. 
Then  add  three  quarts  of  cold  water  and  the  other  ingredients.  For 
cleaning  black  goods,  use  one  quarter  cup  of  this  liquid  in  one  pint 
of  warm  water.  If  this  makes  the  article  too  stiff,  add  more  water. 
For  removing  spots  from  woolen  goods  such  as  men's  clothing,  apply 
the  detergent,  only  slightly  diluted,  with  a  sponge.  It  is  always 
safer  to  test  this  detergent  or  any  other  cleansing  solution  with  a 
^iece  of  the  material  (e.g.,  an  underseam]  before  attempting  to 
remove  stain,  as  the  ether  may  affect  the  color. 

Stains  and  Their  Removal.  —  (For  detailed  directions,  see  page 
276.) 

To  remove  all  unknown  stains,  grass  and  mildew,  wash  the  stain 
in  cold  water. 

To  remove  chocolate  with  cream,  cocoa  with  cream,  cream, 
gravies,  scorch,  sewing  machine  grease,  and  tea  with  cream,  wash 
with  cold  water  and  soap  ;  any  trace  of  stain  may  be  removed  with 
warm  water  and  soap. 

To  remove  blood  and  mucus,  mucus,  and  pus,  soak  in  cold  water 
to  which  salt  has  been  added,  1  cup  of  salt  to  8  quarts  of  water,  then 
wash  in  warm  water  and  soap. 

To  remove  blood,  punch,  sugars,  and  syrups,  wash  in  warm  water 
until  the  stain  disappears. 

To  remove  grease,  meat  juice,  and  perspiration,  wash  in  warm 
water  and  soap,  or  use  magnesium,  chalk,  starch  or  meals  —  not  flours. 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  275 

To  remove  indelible  pencil,  stove  blacking,  tan  shoe  polish,  tar, 
and  wagon  grease,  put  lard  on  stain,  rub  well  into  the  grease  spot ; 
wash  with  soap  and  warm  water.  Eepeat  until  removed. 

To  remove  bluing,  clear  coffee,  clear  tea,  and  fruit,  spread  stain 
over  bowl ;  pour  boiling  water  through  the  stain  from  a  height. 

To  remove  old  stains  of  chocolate,  cocoa,  coffee,  and  tea,  moisten 
with  cold  water;  cover  with  borax,  and  let  stand  a  few  minutes; 
rinse  with  boiling  water. 

To  remove  wine,  put  thick  layer  of  salt  on  stain  as  soon  as  made ; 
pour  boiling  water  from  a  height  through  the  stain  as  soon  as 
convenient. 

To  remove  ink  and  iron  rust,  use  dilute  acids  (lemon  juice,  sour 
milk,  cream  of  tartar,  rhubarb,  pineapple,  hydrochloric  and  oxalic 
acids.  Use  food  acids  direct  without  dilution;  dilute  hydrochloric 
and  oxalic  acid,  with  equal  quantities  of  water. ) .  Apply  the  acid,  let 
stand  a  few  seconds,  rinse  with  warm  water;  continue  until  stain 
disappears,  then  wash  with  soap  and  water. 

To  remove  ink  and  stubborn  stains,  use  dilute  acids  (see  para- 
graph above)  and  Javelle  water.  Apply  the  acid,  then  follow  with 
Javelle,  finally  rinse  with  hot  water  and  soap. 

To  remove  old  stains  and  stubborn  stains,  use  dilute  oxalic  acid 
(as  above)  and  potassium  permanganate.  Apply  a  few  drops  of 
potassium  permanganate ;  rinse  with  warm  water,  then  apply 
oxalic  acid.  Eepeat  until  stain  disappears  and  finally  wash  with 
soap  and  water. 

Before  beginning  to  work  on  the  stain  find  out  if  possible :  What 
kind  of  fabric  is  stained,  and  what  is  the  stain.  If  the  fabric  is 
colored,  one  must  decide  which  is  least  objectionable,  the  stain,  or 
the  resulting  color  or  lack  of  color  which  may  come  from  the  action 
of  the  chemical  used  to  remove  the.  stain.  Try  the  stain  remover 
on  a  sample  of  the  fabric  or  on  some  under-seam,  to  see  the  effect. 

In  using  chemicals  one  should  know  that  alkalies,  like  soda, 
potash,  ammonia,  and  strong  soaps,  yellow  and  destroy  wools  and 
silks.  Dilute  acids,  such  as  half-strength  oxalic,  citric,  and  hydro- 
chloric, may  be  used  on  wools  and  silks.  Dilute  acids  and  alkalies 
may  be  used  on  cottons  and  linens. 

Cold  water  will  remove  many  stains  and  is,  therefore,  the  first 
thing  to  try,  especially  if  the  stain  is  unknown.  The  worker  must 
realize  that  it  takes  time,  and  that  several  short  applications  are 


276  HOUSEWIFERY 

better  than  one  continuous  one.  If  any  reagent  has  been  used,  ex- 
cept chloroform  or  gasoline,  which  always  quickly  evaporates,  wash 
out  with  soap  and  water  or  a  very  abundant  use  of  water.  This  will 
stop  further  work  of  the  chemical  and  the  possible  formation  of 
holes. 

Method  of  Procedure. — The  method  of  removing  stains  is  as 
follows :  Spread  the  stained  portion  over  a  bowl.  With  dropper 
apply  the  proper  chemical.  Follow  quickly  with  warm  water.  (Test 
by  holding  the  whole  finger  in  the  water ;  it  should  not  burn. )  Many 
short  applications  are  surer  and  safer  than  the  one  long-continued 
use  of  a  chemical  before  rinsing.  When  the  stain  has  disappeared, 
wash  the  spot  well  until  the  chemical  is  entirely  removed,  then  wash 
in  soap  and  water,  and  rinse. 

Kules  that  a  good  worker  on  stains  follows : 

1.  Know  material. 

2.  Know  stain. 

3.  Use  dilute  chemical. 

4.  Use  a  dropper. 

5.  Always  use  simple  reagents  first. 

6.  Wash  thoroughly. 

Each  stain  presents  its  own  peculiar  problem,  because  the  dye 
and  the  fabric  play  an  important  part,  and  even  with  these  two 
conditions  understood,  the  stain  itself  presents  difficulties.  For 
example,  coffee  with  cream,  and  coffee  without  it  are  two  distinct 
problems.  A  good  general  rule  to  follow  when  there  are  combined 
problems  is  to  work  as  if  the  stain  were  all  due  to  the  material 
that  is  most  difficult  to  treat.  In  case  of  a  stain  of  coffee  with 
cream,  work  as  if  it  were  entirely  cream.  Cream  being  a  fat,  use 
cold  water,  and  then  cold  water  and  soap.  Coffee  without  cream 
is  instantly  removed  with  boiling  water.  Fruit  under  the  same 
condition  responds  similarly.  In  the  same  way,  when  a  combined 
fabric  is  to  be  cleaned,  proceed  always  as  if  the  whole  material  were 
entirely  the  most  delicate  one.  For  example,  wool  and  cotton,  wash 
as  wool. 

Good  general  rules  to  follow  are : 

Clear  sugar  stains,  like  punch,  u&e  hot  water. 

Clear  fat  stains,  like  olive  oil,  use  cold  water  and  soap. 

Clear  albumen  stains,  like  blood  or  egg,  use  cold  or  tepid  water. 

Use  magnesia  or  chalk  for  grease  stains  only. 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  277 

Any  combination  of  material  like  blood  and  grease  as  in  gravy, 
use  cold  water;  like  fat,  sugar  and  albumen,  as  chocolate  ice- 
cream, cold  water. 

Precautions  in  Spotting. — Stain  removal  or  "  spotting  "  means 
that  a  water  ring  will  often  follow,  and  that  the  fading  or  running 
of  colors  may  result.  When  the  whole  garment  is  to  be  washed 
after  the  stain  is  removed,  the  problem  of  stain  removal  is  much 
less  difficult  than  if  only  the  spot  is  to  be  removed.  If  the  garment 
is  to  be  washed,  take  out  the  spot  first,  and  then  proceed  to  wash 
the  whole.  If  the  garment  is  to  have  a  stain  removed,  place  the 
garment  on  a  clean  work-table  and  isolate  the  spot  as  much  as 
possible  for  two  reasons — first,  to  keep  from  spotting  the  rest  of  the 
material  by  any  accidental  dropping  of  water  or  chemicals;  and, 
second,  so  that  the  chemical  or  water  used  will  have  the  least  chance 
to  spread.  Put  a  cloth  over  the  larger  part  of  the  garment  as  pro- 
tection. Place  the  stain  on  a  folded  cloth,  or  white  blotting  paper, 
or  over  a  bowl.  Use  the  cloth  method  for  silks  or  fabrics  not  to  be 
washed  later,  and  use  the  bowl  method  for  white  goods  to  be  washed 
or  where  water  does  not  harm.  Moisten  the  stain  with  cold  water, 
then  apply  the  chemical  by  dropping  from  the  dropper;  the  chemi- 
cal does  better  work  if  the  way  is  prepared  by  moistening  the  stain. 
As  fast  as  the  stain  loosens  and  is  absorbed  by  the  cloth  and  blotting 
paper,  use  a  new  pad.  If  colors  are  very  delicate,  use  cold  water 
instead  of  warm,  and  use  dilute  chemical,  even  though  it  takes  a 
longer  time.  Warm  water  often  loosens  a  dye.  A  water  ring  may  be 
left  after  a  spot  has  been  removed.  (See  below.) 

Saving  Colors. — Stripes  are  saved  by  streaking  the  adjoining 
stripes  with  soap  or  borax,  especially  if  acid  is  to  be  used;  for  ex- 
ample, in  taking  ink  out  of  a  white  stripe  among  colors.  Where 
colors  are  very  uncertain,  it  is  helpful  to  use  pieces  of  material  of  the 
same  color  for  the  pad  under  the  stain  and  for  the  rubbing  cloth. 
A  white  cloth  often  leaves  a  fine  lint  stain  which  is  very  difficult  to 
remove. 

To  remove  a  water  ring,  hold  the  stain  over  steam  and  shake 
until  thoroughly  moist,  not  wet,  then  shake  dry.  Often  the  whole 
breadth  of  material  will  have  to  be  steamed.  Steam  is  easily  ob- 
tained by  boiling  a  small  amount  of  water  in  the  teakettle,  fitting 
the  top  tightly  and  tying  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  spout. 


278  HOUSEWIFERY 

This  cheesecloth  prevents  sputterings  of  water  from  spotting  the 
fabric. 

Laundering. — Laundry  work  is  a  weekly  renovation,  requiring 
much  consideration,  too  much  for  a  small  part  of  a  chapter;  but 
as  laundering  is  renovation  and  renewal,  a  few  brief  directions  will 
be  given.  (For  Laundry  Equipment,  see  page  103;  for  Supplies, 
see  page  136.) 

Sort  the  clothes  into  piles  of  white  and  color,  and  separate  these 
piles  of  fabrics  into  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  linen.  JMend  wherever 
possible,  before  washing.  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 

Remove  stains  from  white  clothes  if  these  stains  are  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  need  special  attention.  Many  ordinary  stains  come  out 
in  the  process  of  washing. 

Soaking  clothes  in  cold  water  helps  to  clean  them,  because  it 
softens  and  dissolves  so  much  of  soil,  and  it  certainly  makes  washing 
easier.  On  account  of  the  possible  stains,  use  cold  water,  not  hot. 
Soak  only  cottons  and  linens. 

Wash  in  warm  water  and  soap  suds.  There  has  been  enough 
soap  used  when  the  suds  holds  and  does  not  settle  on  the  water 
as  a  scum. 

Boil  only  white  linens  and  cottons;  should  one  wish  to  econo- 
mize on  time,  fuel  or  work,  scald  the  clothes  by  covering  with  hot 
water,  not  waiting  to  boil.  Boiling  helps  to  clean  very  soiled  cloth- 
ing and  is  good  to  sterilize  the  clothes.  To  boil,  rub  the  clothes, 
especially  soiled  -spots,  with  soap,  fill  boiler  with  cold  water,  and  put 
on  to  boil.  There  must  be  good  suds.  Boil  five  minutes  after 
boiling  point  is  reached,  then  rinse  in  hot  rinse.  Boiling,  when  done, 
should  follow  the  washing  and  two  hot  rinses  should  follow  that. 
Bo  not  boil  dirty  clothes,  and  do  not  boil  with  naphtha  soaps. 

Rinse  in  two  hot  rinses  so  as  to  flood  off  all  greasy  dirty  soap 
suds,  which  would  form  a  sticky  scum  if  cooled. 

Einse  in  cold  water,  because  the  cold  water  opens  the  fabric  and 
chills  the  clothes,  preparing  them  for  the  blue. 

Blue  in  well-stirred,  clean  blue  water.  If  solid  blues  are  used, 
tie  them  in  several  thicknesses  of  cheesecloth  or  a  heavy  piece  of 
flannel  or  muslin.  Use  about  one  teaspoonful  of  liquid  blue  to  a 
tub,  and  abont  one-third  of  a  ball  to  a  tub. 

Starching  is  a  process  which,  when  used,  follows  the  bluing. 
When  the  garment  is  to  be  starched,  use  the  following  proportions : 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  279 

1-3  tablespoons   starch 
1  teaspoon  paraffin 
1  teaspoon  borax 
1  quart  hot  water 

Mix  all  dry  ingredients,  moisten  with  cold  water,  and  then 
add  boiling  water,  stirring  well.  Cook  until  paste  is  clear,  about  ten 
minutes,  stirring  to  prevent  burning.  Use  starch  only  after  being 
well  cooked  and  strained.  Use  hot  starch  for  all  things  except  colors. 
Starch  with  garments  wrong  side  out,  wring  out  all  the  starch  that 
can  be  wrung  out,  and  rub  in  the  remainder.  A  good  worker  never 
leaves  a  glaze  of  starch  on  the  garment,  but  works  it  well  into  the 
fabric.  Avoid  using  a  starch  too  thick  and  pasty. 

Dry  by  hanging  with  the  wind,  by  pinning  straight,  and  by 
hanging  enough  of  the  garment  over  the  line  to  prevent  the  corners 
from  tearing.  A  double  garment  like  a  petticoat  is  less  likely  to 
tear  if  it  is  hung  so  that  the  opening  is  with  the  wind. 

Take  down  from  the  line,  fold  in  even  folds  without  crushing, 
and  much  will  be  saved  in  the  ironing. 

Sprinkling  should  be  done  evenly  and  thoroughly,  but  not  too 
heavily.  A  good  rule  is  that  thin  and  thick  goods  require  the  most 
care,  like  lace  and  tucks.  Roll  tightly  so  that  the  moisture  pene- 
trates, and  place  the  rolls  close  together  in  the  basket.  Clothes 
should  be  moistened  at  least  one-half  hour  before  the  ironing  is 
to  be  done;  and  when  the  weather  is  not  too  warm,  over  night  is 
better ;  too  long  a  delay  after  moistening  for  ironing  may  result  in 
mildew. 

Iron  with  clean,  hot  irons,  and  always  iron  as  large  a  space 
as  possible  at  one  time.  Always  iron  each  section  dry  as  it  is  ironed, 
for  this  prevents  the  rough-dry  appearance  which  follows  if  the 
clothes  are  not  sprinkled  enough  or  are  not  ironed  dry  as  they  are 
ironed.  Iron  the  garment  by  first  ironing  those  parts  that  when 
finished  may  hang  off  the  board  out  of  the  way  while  the  rest  is 
ironed.  Iron  table  linen  half  dry  on  the  wrong  side,  and  entirely  dry 
on  the  right.  Iron  embroidery  on  the  wrong  side  on  a  pad  heavy 
enough  to  allow  the  embroidery  to  sink  well  into  the  pad.  Thick 
embroidery  requires  a  thick  pad.  Silks  should  be  pressed  on  the 
wrong  side,  and  heavy  silks  are  best  pressed  with  a  cheesecloth 
under  the  iron;  this  is  especially  true  for  heavy  seams  or  folds. 
Too  hot  an  iron  will  not  only  glaze  but  crack  the  silk.  Silks  often 
finish  better  if  the  cheesecloth  or  the  silk  itself  is  slightly  damp 


280  HOUSEWIFERY 

when  ironed.  Woolens  should  be  ironed  on  the  wrong  side  or  should 
be  pressed  on  the  right  side  with  dampened  cheesecloth  over  the 
wool.  Pull  up  the  cheesecloth  against  the  nap  of  the  wool,  and  in 
that  way  lift  and  fluff  it.  Woolen  blankets  are  much  improved 
by  brushing  with  a  stiff  whisk  broom. 

Washing  Colored  Goods, — For  these,  it  may  not  be  possible  to 
use  soap,  in  which  case  starch  water,  such  as  might  be  made  by  using 
grated  potato,  bran,  soap  bark,  or  in  fact,  ordinary  laundry  starch 
paste,  may  be  substituted.  With  these  agents  the  only  thing  that 
could  affect  the  color  would  be  the  water  softening  the  dye;  avoid 
this  by  using  cold  water  instead  of  warm.  To  use  any  of  these, 
add  them  directly  to  the  wash  water,  using  about  2  cups  to  a  half- 
gallon  of  water.  Small  quantities  of  bran  or  soap  bark  will  go 
farther  if  heated  in  the  water  for  10  to  15  minutes,  and  then 
strained  out.  Use  the  grated  potato  raw,  but  without  paring. 

Colors  may  be  preserved  to  a  great  extent  by  the  use  of  cool 
water,  soap  in  solution,  and  the  use  of  soap  substitutes.  If  the 
water  causes  the  color  to  "run"  or  "bleed,"  use  salt  as  quickly 
as  possible — so  quickly  that  the  salt  must  be  at  hand  ready  for 
instant  use ;  but  do  not  use  "  for  fear " ;  salt  hardens  the  water, 
so  better  results  will  follow  washing  first.  Use  1  to  2  cups  salt  to 
enough  water  to  cover  garment. 

Bleaching — To  Bleach  Cottons  and  Linens. — In  bleaching, 
always  have  the  fabrics  clean.  So  the  first  step  is  to  wash  out  the 
dirt.  There  are  three  household  methods  of  bleaching. 

The  first  method  is  to  spread  the  wet  garment  on  the  grass  or 
on  a  towel  in  the  sun.  As  it  dries,  remoisten,  because  water  supplies 
one  of  the  best  bleaching  agents — oxygen. 

The  second  method  is  by  using  Javelle.  Javelle  is  a  solution 
which  may  be  purchased  at  the  drug  store,  or  may  be  made  with 
little  effort  and  expense  by  the  housewife. 

Eecipe  for  Javelle  Water: 

1  lb.  washing  soda 

1  qt.  boiling  water 

1/2  lb.  chloride  of  lime 

2  qts.  cold  water 

Put  the  soda  into  an  agate  pan'  and  add  boiling  water.  Mix  the  lime  in 
the  cold  water.  Pour  this  mixture  into  the  dissolved  soda.  When  settled, 
pour  the  clear  liquid  into  a  bottle  and  use  as  Javelle  water.  Keep  in  a 
dark  place.  The  sediment  will  disinfect  sinks  and  flush  closets. 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  281 

This  Javelle  mixture  should  be  allowed  to  settle  and  only  the 
liquid  bottled  and  used.  It  is  cloudy  Javelle  which  is  harmful  to 
clothes.  To  every  pail  of  water  use  one  to  two  cups  of  Javelle  liquid. 
Hot  water  will  facilitate  the  work,  but  do  not  boil.  Plunge  the  clean 
wet  garment  into  the  water  to  which  Javelle  has  been  added.  After 
three  or  four  minutes  wash  in  hot  soapy  water.  Repeat  if  necessary. 

The  third  method  of  bleaching  is  by  potassium  permanganate 
and  oxalic  acid.  They  may  be  used  in  large  quantities  for  the 
whole  garment,  or  with  a  dropper  to  remove  spots.  Make  the  per- 
manganate solution  by  using  one  teaspoon  of  crystals  to  one  quart 
of  water,  and  use  half-strength  oxalic  acid,  which  is  made  from 
a  concentrated  solution  by  adding  to  an  equal  amount  of  water.  Add 
acid  to  water  instead  of  water  to  acid,  to  avoid  its  sputtering.  Apply 
the  permanganate  to  the  clean,  moistened  garment,  then  rinse  with 
warm  water ;  the  garment  will  turn  a  good  brown ;  follow  with  dilute 
oxalic  acid,  which  will  whiten.  Rinse  with  several  washings  of 
water,  and  finally  wash  either  the  spot  or  the  whole  garment  with 
soapy  water.  This  last  step  is  always  necessary,  so  as  to  be  sure  that 
no  chemical  has  been  left  in  the  garment.  Oxalic  acid  is  a  poison. 

To  Bleach  Wools  and  Silks. — Neither  Javelle  nor  potassium 
permanganate  can  be  used  to  remove  stains  from  silks  or  wools, 
unless  a  stain  is  so  bad  that  the  slight  yellowing  from  Javelle  or 
permanganate  is  nothing  as  compared  to  the  stain. 

For  both  silks  and  wools,  borax  can  be  used,  as  it  is  a  mild 
bleach  for  either  fabric.  Hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  is  the 
"hypo"  used  in  photography,  can  also  be  used  for  woolens  or 
silks.  A  tablespoonful  of  crystals  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water  will 
make  a  good  rinse  to  whiten  silks ;  follow  with  clear  water.  Silk  or 
wool,  once  yellowed,  is  hard  to  bleach  because  of  its  delicateness. 

For  wools,  sulphur  fumes  allowed  to  pass  through  the  clean,  wet 
garment  is  the  best  bleach.  Care  should  be  used  in  doing  this  work 
to  avoid  fire  and  not  to  subject  the  worker  to  the  danger  of  inhaling 
the  fumes.  Unless  one  has  facilities  for  working  out  of  doors 
it  is  rather  inadvisable  to  attempt  it.  A  barrel  and  a  sulphur 
candle  make  a  good  bleaching  outfit.  Place  the  pan  of  water,  in 
which  stands  the  candle,  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  so  that 
the  fumes  from  the  lighted  candle  are  forced  to  rise  and  circulate 
through  the  garment,  which  is  suspended  in  the  barrel  on  clean 


282 


HOUSEWIFERY 


white  strings  or  strips  of  muslin.  Be  careful  of  two  things :  do  not 
inhale  the  fumes,  and  arrange  the  candle  so  as  to  prevent  fire. 

Pale  bluing  in  the  rinse  water  of  either  white  silks  or  wools 
will  do  considerable  towards  keeping  the  white  clear  and  preventing 
its  yellowing.  Photographers'  "Hypo"  (hyposulphite  of  soda)  can 
be  used  to  restore  the  whiteness  to  silks  or  wools,  but  any  stronger 
chemical  bleach  will  yellow  both  wools  and  silks. 

Velvets. — All  materials  of  this  nature,  often  found  in  portieres, 
table  runners,  and  cushions,  may  be  renovated  by  brushing  thor- 
oughly with  a  soft  brush.  If  any  whipping  is  to  be  done,  it  should 
always  be  done  from  the  back  so  as  not  to  mar  or  print  the  velvet 
with  the  beater.  Water  spots  on  velvet  may  be  steamed  out.  This 
may  be  done  by  either  of  two  methods :  Put  about  one-half  inch  of 
water  in  the  teakettle,  tie  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  spout,  and 
let  the  water  boil  hard.  In  this  way  a  jet  of  steam  will  be  produced 
in  which  the  velvet  can  be  shaken.  This  process  may  have  to  be 
repeated  several  times,  but  in  almost  all  cases  the  worker  will  be 
rewarded.  If  one  prefers  to  use  a  wet  cloth  on  a  hot  iron,  steam 
can  be  produced  this  way;  but  for  large,  heavy  pieces  the  teakettle 
method  is  best.  Cleaning  may  be  done  satisfactorily  with  mag- 
nesium or  chalk  by  spreading  a  thick  layer  of  powder ;  let  it  remain 
for  several  hours,  even  a  day  or  so,  and  then  shake  and  brush  off 
the  powder.  This  method  is  not  applicable  when  the  garment  is 
badly  soiled. 

'Eiderdown  Quilts. — Prepare  a  suds  of  warm  water  and  white 
soap.  Souse  or  knead  the  quilt  in  the  suds.  Use  a  second  suds, 
two  waters  for  rinsing,  and  then  hang  to  dry  by  spreading  out  be- 
tween two  lines.  As  often  as  possible  while  drying  shake  from  all 
four  sides  to  re-liven  the  down,  and  to  help  to  re-spread  it.  It 
will  be  found  that  any  wringing  must  be  done  by  squeezing.  The 
pressing  of  the  silk  or  sateen  cover  may  be  done  with  a  warm  iron. 
A  little  time  will  be  required  after  the  down  is  dry  to  spread  it  about 
with  the  fingers.  The  quilts  may  be  most  satisfactorily  cleaned  in 
this  way,  and  will  lack  only  a  little  of  the  original  puffiness,  which 
came  from  the  down  being  blown  into  the  various  section  patterns 
as  the  quilt  was  being  made. 

Pillows. — Pillows  may  be  washed,  without  removing  the  feathers 
from  the  case,  in  a  tub  or  washing  machine.  Wash  by  sousing 
up  and  down  in  the  water,  and  then  after  rinsing,  hang  to  dry  in 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  283 

the  sun  and  wind.  Choose  a  windy  day  for  this  work  if  possible, 
as  wind  dries  and  livens  the  feathers  well.  It  will  be  easier  to  clean 
the  tick  if  the  feathers  are  removed,  as  the  tick  often  needs  rubbing 
which  will  break  the  feathers.  For  this,  transfer  the  feathers  to 
a  cheesecloth  bag,  and  wash  feathers  in  the  bag,  and  wash  the  ticking 
separately. 

Gold  and  Silver  Lace  and  Embroidery. — These  may  be  cleaned 
by  brushing  with  alcohol  or  gasoline.  If  this  lace  is  in  a  dress, 
carry  out  the  same  precautions  as  given  above  (page  277)  for  "  spot- 
ting." This  metal  lace  may  also  be  cleaned  by  boiling  in  salt  and 
water,  using  two  tablespoonsful  of  salt  to  each  pint  of  water. 

Corduroy. — Corduroy,  which  is  often  used  for  hangings  as  well 
as  clothing,  can  be  washed  successfully.  To  wash,  prepare  a  s^ds  of 
luke-warm  water  and  soap.  Wash  or  souse  the  material  up  and 
down  in  the  soapsuds,  rinse  in  several  waters,  and  hang  dripping  on 
the  line.  There  can  be  no  wringing,  because  that  would  mar  the 
velvet.  When  dry  brush  with  a  soft  brush  and  do  not  iron. 

To  Dry  Clean. — Dry  cleaning  is  a  problem  for  the  expert 
worker,  and  because  there  is  so  much  of  a  fire  risk  involved,  it  should 
never  be  done  by  the  careless  worker  and  never  by  anyone  except 
under  excellent  conditions,  such  as  plenty  of  air,  suitable  containers, 
a  possible  way  of  disposing  of  the  gasoline  after  use,  and  no  oppor- 
tunity for  fire,  such  as  cigars,  matches,  candles,  gas  light  or  lamps, 
or  even  a  cook  stove.  An  open  flame  of  any  sort  will  ignite  the 
gasoline  fumes  at  a  distance  of  several  feet — real  contact  of  the 
fire  and  the  liquid  is  not  necessary. 

For  the  best  gasoline  work  a  person  should  have  on  hand  as 
much  gasoline  as  she  would  have  water  for  washing,  and  it  should 
be  used  in  as  generous  quantities  as  water,  otherwise  streaky,  grimy 
clothes  will  result.  Soap  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the 
gasoline  by  taking  the  cleansing  brush  and  rubbing  the  spot  directly 
with  the  gasoline  and  soap,  as  if  it  were  soap  and  water.  There 
khould  be  much  rinsing  to  insure  good  color.  Finally,  however, 
things  which  have  been  continuously  gasolined  are  likely  to  turn 
yellow  and  are  almost  impossible  to  bleach  white.  Saving  used 
gasoline  for  the  next  cleaning  is  not  in  the  long  run  a  saving,  be- 
cause the  exposure  causes  the  gasoline  to  become  less  volatile  and 
more  oily,  and  consequently  a  grimy  cleaner.  To  dispose  of  used 


284  HOUSEWIFERY 

gasoline,  pour  on  a  gravel  or  sandy  soil,  or  let  it  evaporate  in  the 
shade.  Gasoline  must  not  be  put  down  drains. 

Other  ways  of  dry  cleaning  are  by  the  use  of  fullers'  earth,  dry 
starch,  magnesia,  and  meals,  e.g.,  bran  and  cornmeal.  The  principle 
of  this  cleaning  is  that  these  dry  materials  absorb  the  grease  which 
binds  soil  to  the  fabrics,  and  then  the  soil  is  set  free  to  be  brushed 
off  with  the  dry  powder.  Before  doing  much  brushing  always 
shake  off  the  powder.  This  will  help  to  prevent  the  griminess  that 
otherwise  will  follow. 

Dyeing. — Dyeing  is  rather  a  last  alternative  toward  renovation 
of  a  fabric  which  cannot  be  washed  or  dry  cleaned  with  satisfactory 
results,  or  which  has  spots.  To  dye  the  garment,  wash  it  clean, 
rinse  well,  and  it  is  ready  to  dye;  no  one  would  dye  a  soiled  gar- 
ment. Many  housewives  attempt  to  dye  goods  at  home.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  some  small,  inexpensive  thing  be  attempted  first,  as 
much  can  be  learned  in  this  way  about  the  best  way  to  proceed. 
In  all  cases  the  garment  should  be  cleaned  from  grease,  the  dye 
should  be  mixed  according  to  the  prescribed  methods  which  come 
with  almost  every  package  of  dye,  and  there  should  be  sufficient 
quantity,  so  that  the  garment  may  completely  float  in  the  dye  solu- 
tion and  in  that  way  avoid  streaking.  If,  in  its  original  state  the  gar- 
ment is  uneven  in  color,  for  example,  if  a  person  has  tried  to  "  spot " 
it,  and  some  of  the  color  has  been  withdrawn,  the  dye  should  be  put 
on  these  lighter  spots  with  a  cloth  or  brush  before  the  rest  of  the 
garment  is  dipped.  Otherwise,  when  the  garment  is  dyed  for  the 
purpose  of  covering  up  spots,  the  spots  will  in  all  probability  appear 
a  shade  lighter.  This  is  the  reason  for  the  expert's  advice  that  the 
color  chosen  for  an  old  garment  should  be  a  very  dark  one,  either 
blue  or  black,  for  then  it  will  be  so  dark  that  it  will  probably  cover 
up  many  imperfections.  As  dyeing  requires  soaking  in  water,  the 
fabric  is  very  likely  to  shrink.  All  of  this  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  before  attempting  to  do  any  work.  It  is  one  thing 
to  have  a  garment  renovated  and  have  it  turn  out  so  well  that 
it  may  be  called  an  economy ;  but  it  is  decidedly  a  waste  to  pay  for 
renewal,  and  have  a  garment  which  cannot  be  used. 

Rugs  and  Carpets. — The  first  thought  in  renovating  rugs  and 
carpets  is  to  get  them  clean.  To  remove  the  soil  they  are  usually 
sent  away  to  be  scoured,  and  this  is  advisable,  especially  if  the  rug 
or  carpet  is  very  large  and  weighty  to  handle.  A  rug  can  be  freed 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION 


285 


from  dust  by  whipping  with  a  flat  rattan  beater.  A  wire  or  a 
stick  beater  is  hard  on  the  rug  because  either  may  cut  the  fiber. 
Shaking  a  rug  often  frays  the  ends. 

Any  rug,  if  one  has  the  endurance,  may  be  thoroughly  fresh- 
ened at  home  by  first  getting  it  entirely  free  from  dust,  and  then 
preparing  a  heavy  lather  (as  heavy  as  a  shaving  lather) ,  of  any  white 
soap  and  water  (Fig.  162).  With  a  soft  brush  this  suds  may  be 
spread  on  the  rug,  always  with  the  thought  of  keeping  up  a  strong 


FIG.  162. — Washing  rug  or  carpet.     Any  rug  may  be  washed,  if  the  colors  are  fast.    Test 
with  a  little  water  first. 

frothy  lather.  Apply  the  suds  with  the  brush  and  rinse  it  off  with 
soft  cloths  or  sponges  which  have  been  wrung  out  of  warm  water. 
Do  only  a  small  part  at  a  time.  Rinse  each  part  as  you  work  rather 
than  spread  over  too  large  a  surface  at  one  time.  The  rinsing  is  ail 
essential  part,  so  be  careful  to  change  the  water  very  frequently,  and 
as  fast  as  it  darkens  in  color.  The  washing  method  may  be  applied 
to  practically  all  rugs,  except  those  that  would  fade  even  with  water. 
Many  rugs  may  be  actually  washed  in  the  washtub  or  in  a  wash- 
ing machine.  First  brush  or  beat  to  remove  all  possible  dust ;  then 


286  HOUSEWIFERY 

give  it  a  clear  wash  first  to  remove  the  dirt  it  is  not  possible  to 
brush  out.  Then  add  soapsuds  and  wash  until  clean.  Several 
rinses  will  clear  up  the  coloring  and  remove  any  soap  which  if 
allowed  to  remain  would  make  the  rug  sticky.  In  order  that  the 
rug  be  not  marked,  do  not  attempt  to  wring,  but  hang  dripping  on 
the  line  wrong  side  down,  and  let  drip  until  dry.  The  washing 
of  rag  rugs  should  be  planned  for  when  they  are  made  by  having 
the  rags  of  permanent  color  so  as  to  allow  for  washing.  Many  rag 
rugs  do  not  appear  to  wash  well  because  they  have  been  washed  in 
too  small  an  amount  of  water,  and  not  rinsed  well.  This  is  often 
the  case  when  done  in  the  washtub  and  is  especially  so  if  the  person 
is  not  strong  enough  to  handle  the  rug  easily  and  rinse  it  well. 
In  such  a  case  the  rug  had  better  be  laid  on  a  floor,  like  that  of 
the  porch,  scrubbed  with  a  broom  and  suds,  and  rinsed  by  pails 
of  water  or  by  means  of  the  hose.  Poor  rinsing  leaves  a  grimy  rug. 

Matting. — To  clean  matting,  use  ammonia  and  cold  water, 
trying  to  avoid  using  much  soap;  never  use  very  hot  water,  or  a 
soap  that  contains  a  good  deal  of  soda.  Cold  water  will  give  the 
best  results.  To  remove  grease  spots,  spread  either  fullers'  earth, 
dry  starch,  or  whiting  on  the  stain.  This  dry  absorbent  should  take 
up  the  grease.  A  second  application  may  be  necessary,  each  time 
letting  the  absorbent  remain  for  a  few  days.  Detergent  (page  274) 
can  be  used  to  remove  grease,  or  ether  or  chloroform  will  dissolve 
grease.  Be  careful  to  absorb  the  grease  by  a  pad  under  the  stain, 
changing  it  as  fast  as  soiled.  (Avoid  a  fire  with  ether.) 

Linoleum. — A  much  worn  linoleum  can  be  freshened  and  saved 
by  using  varnish.  This  varnish,  like  that  for  the  floor,  must  be 
of  a  very  good  quality  and  put  on  as  a  thin  covering,  because  varnish 
that  is  either  of  poor  quality  or  is  put  on  too  thick,  is  likely  to 
prove  worse  than  none. 

Tapestries. — Tapestries,  either  wools  or  silks,  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  brushed  or  cleaned  with  the  vacuum  cleaner  to  keep  out 
the  dust,  and  also  to  ward  off  moths.  To  wash,  lukewarm  or  cold 
water  should  be  used,  and  in  this  dissolve  enough  white  soap  to  make 
a  good  suds.  With  a  soft  brush  apply  the  suds,  and  rinse  with  clear 
water  until  all  soap  is  removed.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  tapestries 
flat.  They  may  be  tacked  on  a  table  top,  or  they  may  be  hung  to 
be  cleaned.  With  careful  workmanship  they  could  be  cleaned  in 
their  frames  provided  they  were  not  fastened  on  a  back  mounting 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  287 

so  that  there  would  be  no  chance  for  soap  and  water  to  get  in  under- 
neath where  it  would  not  dry  out  easily.  Warm  cornmeal  or 
fullers'  earth  will  give  a  dry  cleaning,  but  every  particle  must  be 
brushed  off  when  finished. 

Window  Shades. — 'Window  shades  can  be  first  cleaned  by  leav- 
ing them  on  the  roll  and  gradually  unwinding,  as  one  wipes  care- 
fully on  both  sides.  If  this  were  done  often  there  would  be  less 
need  for  special  cleansing.  Any  good  white  window  shade  can  be 
cleaned  by  making  a  very  thick  soapsuds  of  white  soap  and  warm 
water,  and  applying  with  a  soft  sponge.  The  sponge  should  be 
wrung  almost  dry  so  as  not  to  water-soak  the  shade.  To  do  this 
work  one  should  spread  the  shade  on  a  table  or  some  large  flat 
surface.  Cornmeal  or  fullers'  earth  may  be  used'  with  a  stiff  brush 
in  cases  where  the  shade  is  not  to  be  washed.  Shades  that  are  too 
old  to  be  washed  can  sometimes  be  painted  with  a  good  quality 
of  white  paint,  being  careful  to  put  it  on  in  a  thin  layer,  and 
getting  it  thoroughly  dry  before  putting  the  shade  up.  To  wash 
colored  shades  may  be  a  risk,  because  the  color  is  likely  to  fade 
and  become  streaky. 

LEATHER 

Fur  Rugs. — Fur  rugs  are  like  any  other  skin  material,  very 
likely  to  dry  in  the  heat  of  the  room.  For  that  reason  a  rug  will 
deteriorate  faster  than  one  would  imagine.  A  white  fur  rug  can 
be  washed  with  soap  in  somewhat  the  same  way  as  one  would  wash 
a  small  dog,  rinsing  in  lukewarm  water,  and  then  letting  it  lie  on 
the  floor  to  dry.  Blue  rinse  water  will  whiten  the  white  hair.  Be- 
cause, unlike  the  live  animal,  there  is  no  supply  of  natural  oil,  the 
housekeeper  may  make  up  this  deficit  by  putting  a  little  neatsfoot  oil, 
lemon  oil,  or  linseed  oil  on  the  back  of  the  skin.  A  mounted  fur 
rug,  if  very  soiled,  can  be  cleaned  with  heavy  lather  and  rinsed  by 
wiping  with  wet  sponges,  as  was  suggested  for  rugs  (page  285). 

It  is  not  possible  to  wash  the  rug,  of  course,  if  the  skin  is 
mounted  with  a  heavy  flannel  or  wool  back.  In  such  a  case,  clean 
the  skin  with  warm  cornmeal.  Put  the  cornmeal  in  the  oven  until 
thoroughly  warm;  then,  in  handfuls,  rub  it  over  the  rug.  As 
fast  as  it  soils,  use  fresh  meal.  Then  cover  the  rug  with  fresh 
meal  and  let  stand  over  night  on  several  days;  shake  and  brush. 
Be  sure  the  cornmeal  is  out  of  the  rug  so  as  not  to  attract  any 
insects. 


288  HOUSEWIFERY 

Chamois.^ — Chamois  as  a  window  cleaner  requires  so  much  care 
to  keep  it  in  good  condition  that  it  is  used  much  less  than  it  once 
was.  The  first  cost  also  is  high.  Whether  it  be  chamois  window 
cloth  or  chamois  gloves,  wash  in  lukewarm  water,  rinse  well  and 
then  pull  to  shape  before  drying.  As  the  skin  dries  it  should  be 
pulled,  shaped,  and  rubbed  to  keep  it  from  drying  stiff.  Should 
the  skin  become  very  hard,  a  warm  water  rinse  with  a  teaspoon  of 
olive  oil  to  two  quarts  of  water  will  do  much  to  soften  it.  The 
chamois  such  as  are  used  for  table  covers  may  be  washed  by  taking 
a  brush  and  lukewarm  soapsuds.  With  a  dry  lather  go  all  over 
the  chamois,  then  rinse  with  lukewarm  water,  wiping  with  a  soft 
sponge  or  cloth ;  when  the  chamois  is  dry,  brush  up  the  fibre  with  a 
soft  brush.  Many  water  spots  and  grease  spots  can  be  removed  in 
this  way.  Often  it  is  better  to  do  the  whole  piece  rather  than  to  try 
to  remove  certain  spots.  Certain  colors  will  be  affected  by  this 
method,  but  if  the  whole  skin  is  done,  the  tone  of  color  will  be 
quite  even  and  look  better  than  if  the  skin  is  "  spotted." 

Leather  Upholstery. — Leather  used  as  upholstery  is  very  likely 
to  become  dried  from  indoor  heat ;  as  it  dries  it  parches  and  cracks. 
To  keep  it  in  good  condition  and  hence  to  help  it  to  resist  wear, 
it  should  be  rubbed  over  with  oil,  with  the  same  idea  as  one  often 
puts  oil  on  the  hands  to  keep  them  from  chapping.  Remembering 
that  any  oil  dressing  will  darken  the  leather,  use  as  light  an  oil 
as  possible,  such  as  paraffin  oil,  lemon  oil,  neatsfoot  or  linseed  oil. 

If  the  leather  is  soiled  it  can  be  cleaned  with  some  of  the 
cleansers  which  the  housekeeper  will  obtain  most  easily  by  purchas- 
ing in  bottles  prepared  for  shoe  cleaning.  A  solution  of  white  soap 
and  water  to  which  oil  and  alcohol  have  been  added,  will  give  a 
good  cleaner.  To  prepare,  use  one  bar  of  white  soap  dissolved  in 
one  cup  of  water ;  then  add  one  cup  of  alcohol  and  two  cups  of  light 
oil.  This  will  not  only  clean  the  leather  but  will  help  to  supply 
some  of  the  oil  it  naturally  requires.  If  one  is  to  oil  leather,  be 
careful  to  rub  off  all  excess  oil  as  it  will  catch  dirt,  and  very  quickly 
darken  the  leather. 

Imitation  leathers,  which  are  really  enamelled  cloth,  will  be 
somewhat  renewed  by  the  oil,  in  the  same  way  as  linoleum  would  be, 
but  the  housekeeper  must  remember  that  this  is  only  a  cloth  with 
an  enamelled  finish  and  has  no  power  of  absorption.  It  is  bound 
to  scale  off  in  time  with  wear. 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  289 

METALS 

Stoves. — Stoves  may  be  painted  by  using  black  enamel  stove 
paint,  and  if  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly,  the  paint  will  remain  for 
several  months,  making  the  cleaning  of  the  stove  only  a  matter  of 
washing  with  a  cloth  or  paper  and  soapy  water. 

Steel  or  rusty  iron  is  probably  most  easily  cleaned  with  pumice 
or  emery  powder.  This  is  cleaning  by  abrasion,  or  the  scratch 
method,  and  care  will  have  to  be  taken  to  avoid  scratching  too 
deeply  into  the  metal.  The  pumice  alone  will  not  only  remove  the 
rust,  which  may  have  penetrated  below  the  outer  coating,  but  will 
tend  to  leave  a  rough  uneven  surface.  Oil  used  with  the  pumice 
will  lubricate  the  pumice,  and  keep  it  from  attacking  the  metal  too 
directly,  thus  producing  a  smooth  cleaned  surface. 

Tin  or  zinc  bathtubs  can  be  painted  with  white  enamel  paint. 
One  should  be  very  sure  that  the  tub  is  thoroughly  dry  before  be- 
ginning,  and  that  after  each  layer  of  paint  there  has  been  ample 
time  for  the  paint  to  dry.  Two  layers  of  house  paint  followed  by 
two  of  enamel  paint  will  give  a  good  finish  for  a  bathtub  that  will 
probably  last  one  season.  To  harden  the  paint  before  putting  the 
tub  to  use,  fill  the  tub  with  cold  water  and  let  stand  for  several 
hours.  Do  this  before  attempting  to  use  it  at  all.  Do  not  begin  to 
paint  a  tub  unless  it  is  the  last  resource  for  renovation,  as  once 
painted  it  will  require  frequent  renewal. 

WOODS 

The  care  and  renewal  of  woods  is  one  of  the  complex  problems 
of  the  housewife.  The  problem  is  made  complex  by  the  many  kinds 
of  woods,  and  the  varied  ways  of  finishing  them.  It  would  require 
an  expert  to  meet  these  complexities,  but  there  are  a  number  of 
simple  suggestions  that  may  be  followed  with  much  success. 

The  everyday  woods  are  pine,  which  is  the  soft  wood  most  com- 
monly used,  and  oak,  ash,  maple,  walnut,  mahogany,  and  cherry, 
which  are  the  common  hard  woods.  Any  of  the  woods  may  be  found 
in  house  finish,  or  used  for  furniture.  They  are  finished  with  either 
wax,  oil,  or  varnish.  The  wax  or  oil  dressing  sinks  into  the  wood, 
while  the  varnish  produces  a  shell-like  glaze  which  prevents  the  wood 
from  absorbing  oil  or  wax.  The  best  care  for  all  wood  finish  is  to 
keep  it  free  from  dust  and  grit  by  using  a  clean  dry  cloth,  and  when 
the  wood  is  to  be  polished  or  "  done  over,"  give  special  attention  to 
19 


290  HOUSEWIFERY 

it.  Poor  results  often  follow  wiping  wood  with  an  oiled  or  dampened 
cloth. 

To  re  finish  means  to  reoil  or  rewax  or  repolish,  besides  covering 
up  scratches,  dents,  heat  or  water  marks.  The  work  involved  is 
more  or  less  limited,  and  so  is  within  the  strength  of  the  housewife. 
However,  no  one  ought  to  undertake  the  more  extensive  work  of 
"  doing  over  "  a  piece  of  furniture  unless  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  amount  of  time  and  labor  required. 

To  compare  the  expense  of  doing  over  at  home  and  of  hiring  it 
done,  one  needs  to  think  of  the  cost  of  the  many  kinds  of  material 
necessary  in  order  to  have  a  little  of  this  or  a  little  of  that  which 
will  be  necessary  for  a  small  job,  yet  sufficient  to  do  many  pieces  of 
work;  and  if  the  materials  are  not  entirely  used,  this  means  an 
expense  about  equal  to  the  price  charged  by  the  professional ;  while 
with  him  there  is  a  much  greater  likelihood  of  success  than  if  the 
work  is  done  at  home.  The  work,  to  be  successful,  cannot  be 
dropped  at  many  stages,  and  the  housewife's  results  often  suffer  on 
this  account.  The  materials  dry  quickly  if  not  used,  and  as  most 
of  them  are  inflammable,  they  should  be  carefully  put  away.  Care 
should  be  given,  too,  to  the  cloths  and  brushes ;  wash  the  cloths  and 
brushes,  or  else  put  them  in  a  stone  crock  or  tin  can  where  they 
could  not  cause  a  fire  if  spontaneous  combustion  results. 

These  difficulties  are  not  mentioned  to  discourage  the  housewife, 
but  to  present  the  problem  as  one  for  which  a  person  of  some  ex- 
perience is  needed,  and  which  involves  considerable  expense  and 
much  time  for  successful  work.  If  the  man  of  the  family  enjoys 
this  kind  of  shop  work  in  the  evenings,  then  it  is  good  home  work 
for  him,  giving  exercise  and  providing  a  means  of  saving  money, 
as  well  as  securing  pleasurable  results  in  the  good  finish  to  which 
many  woods  readily  respond. 

To  Remove  Paint  or  Varnish. — Prepared  removers  may  be 
bought,  but  a  less  expensive  remover  is  either  potash  or  soda  or 
ammonia.  The  worker  should  be  careful,  as  all  these  materials  are 
very  caustic,  burning  hands  or  fabrics,  and  any  spatterings  would 
ruin  wall  or  woodwork.  To  work  with  any  one  of  them,  have  all 
the  air  possible,  and  leave  the  room  while  the  paint  or  varnish  is 
softening,  as  one  should  not  inhale  their  fumes  more  than  is  neces- 
sary. A  folded,  moistened  handkerchief  over  the  nose  and  mouth 
will  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  worker.  The  softened  varnish  on 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION 


291 


floors  may  be  removed  by  hot  water  put  on  and  taken  off  by  a  mop 
and  a  mop  wringer.  The  hands  cannot  be  used,  as  no  glove  would 
resist  the  caustic.  For  proportions  use — 

Either,  1   Ib.   soda — 5-6  qts.  boiling  water 
or,  1  Ib.  potash — 6  qts.  cold  water 

To  Bleach  Wood. — Add  to  either  soda  or  potash  solution  1  Ib. 
quicklime,  using  cold  water  to  mix,  and  apply  to  bleach  wood. 
Oxalic  acid  will  also  whiten  wood  if  applied  long  enough ;  it  is  espe- 
cially good  to  remove  spots  like  ink  or  stains  of  wear  from  floors. 
Use  the  acid  about  concentrated  and  to  a  room  15  x  20  ft.  about  foui 
pounds  will  be  needed.  The  acid  is  a  POISON. 

To  Use  a  Filler. — "  Fillers  "  are  used  for  wood  before  finish- 
ing. A  filler  is  made  of  boiled  linseed  oil  (1  pint),  turpentine 
(11/2  qts.),  and  whiting  or  cornstarch  (1  pint  of  either,  or  both 
mixed  half  and  half).  This  makes  a  white  filler  which  must  be 
darkened  for  dark  wood,  as  follows : 

For  oak,  use  about  1  teaspoon  raw  umber. 
1    tsp.  burnt  sienna 


For  mahogany  use 


For  walnut  use 


tsp.  yellow  ochre 
1/2  tsp.  Bismarck  brown 
1    tsp.  burnt  umber 
%  tsp.  Venetian  red 
%  tsp.  yellow  ochre 


Test  all  colors  on  a  board  and  if  too  light  add  more  coloring;  if 
too  dark,  add  more  oil  and  turpentine. 

To  Stain. — Various  stains  may  be  bought,  and  as  there  are 
so  many  good  ones,  it  seems  unwise  to  try  to  make  them,  and  so 
spend  time  uselessly,  unless  one  knows  definitely  that  good  results 
may  be  obtained.  One  homemade  stain  is  very  satisfactory  and 
easily  made  by  using  ^4  Ib.  potassium  permanganate  crystals  and 
4  quarts  of  water.  This  stain  turns  brown  soon  after  mixing  and 
may  be  tested  on  a  board  or  folded  newspaper.  Let  the  stain  dry 
thoroughly,  and  then  rub  the  wood  with  oil  or  wax,  or  varnish.  Do 
not  use  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  polish  the  oiled  or  waxed 
wood  again,  and  the  results  will  be  most  satisfactory.  The  var- 
nished floor  needs  only  to  set  and  harden  to  resist  wear  before 
being  used. 

To  Oil. — Oil  should  be  used  to  renew  an  oiled  surface.    Apply 


292  HOUSEWIFERY 

the  lemon  oil,  paraffin  oil,  or  boiled  linseed  oil  by  rubbing  in  circles 
and  polish  by  rubbing  in  straight  lines  with  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

To  Wax. — Remove  every  particle  of  dirt,  which  must  be  done 
before  anything  is  put  on  any  wood.  Wax  an  oiled  or  waxed  surface. 
Any  spots  may  be  removed  with  a  soft  woolen  cloth  and  turpentine, 
and  if  the  spots  are  very  persistent,  use  a  little  rottenstone  well 
mixed  with  the  turpentine.  Wax  by  applying  a  very  thin  coating 
of  prepared  wax  (p.  295)  and  then  rub.  Use  a  piece  of  domet  flannel 
or  a  weighted  brush.  For  table  tops  the  worker's  hand  is  best.  When 
the  worker  is  sure  she  has  rubbed  enough,  rub  some  more. 

To  Shellac  or  Varnish. — Use  good  quality  materials  and  be 
careful  to  have  both  shellac  and  varnish  very  thin,  in  no  way  thick 
enough  to  be  sticky.  Apply  with  a  clean  brush  in  straight  lines, 
and  just  as  far  as  possible  in  continuous,  non-lifting  strokes.  Good 
shellac  work  is  quite  dependent  upon  the  stroke  lof  the  worker,  for 
if  a  short,  irregular,  lifting  stroke  is  used,  shellac  will  stick  and  turn 
white.  In  other  words,  keep  the  stroke  so  even  and  continuous,  that 
air  does  not  get  under  the  brush.  Waterproof  varnish  may  be  used 
on  wooden  floors  in  rooms  where  water  plays  an  important  part, 
such  as  the  kitchen,  bathroom,  or  laundry;  and  also  in  halls  and 
vestibules. 

To  Remove  Scratches. — Often  a  good  furniture  polish  will 
cover  up  the  scratches,  because  it  contains  dye  or  stain  enough  to 
darken  the  wood  which  has  been  bared  by  a  scratch.  If  one  has  no 
prepared  furniture  polish,  rub  with  lemon  oil  or  boiled  linseed  oil. 
Scratches  on  mahogany  may  be  retouched  with  a  little  permanganate 
of  potash.  Its  use  as  a  wood  dye  has  just  been  stated.  If  the  scratch 
is  to  be  polished,  rub  the  spot  arefully  with  fine  grade  sandpaper 
or  steel  wool,  and  then  brush  away  every  particle  of  dust  formed  by 
sandpapering.  Make  a  pad  by  folding  a  small  wad  of  cotton  in  a 
soft  cloth  free  from  lint.  Wet  the  pad  with  paraffin  oil  and  then 
shellac.  Touch  the  surface  with  the  pad,  using  no  pressure  but  a 
sliding  stroke.  Do  not  lift  the  pad  when  rubbing  as  air  will  cloud 
the  shellac.  Several  repetitions  may  be  necessary  for  the  color 
desired. 

To  Remove  Dents  or  Bruises. — This  kind  of  a  bruise  is 
deeper  than  skin  deep.  It  means  that  the  layers  of  wood  have  been 
packed  down  by  the  force  of  a  knock  or  fall.  If  not  too  deep  a 
bruise,  it  is  possible  to  oil  and  rub,  and  darken  the  bruise  so  that  it 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  293 

is  little  noticed.  If  the  dent  is  deeper  than  this,  moisten  soft  thin 
blotting  paper  in  hot  water  and  gently  apply  heat  by  means  of  a 
hot  iron.  The  moisture  and  heat  swells  the  wood  and  the  dented 
part  rises.  This  would  not  be  possible  with  veneer,  which  is  only  a 
thin  wood  surface  finish,  glued  to  a  wood  backing. 

To  Remove  Water  Spots. — Often  the  radiator  leaks,  or  in 
some  other  way  water  has  been  spilled  on  wood;  the  water  mark 
left  is  a  filmy  gray  spot.  It  is  easily  removed  with  a  few  drops  of 
household  ammonia  on  a  cloth.  Moisten  the  cloth,  add  two  or 
three  drops  of  ammonia,  and  rub  the  spot  with  a  clean  cloth.  Polish 
afterwards  with  oil  and  a  soft  cloth. 

To  Remove  Alcohol  Spots. — Fortunately  an  alcohol  spot  is 
not  deep,  and  often  a  quick  rubbing  at  once  with  a  cloth  or  even 
with  the  fingers,  rather  than  lose  time  looking  for  the  cloth,  will 
return  the  finish.  Lemon,  linseed  or  prepared  oil  on  a  cloth  and 
good  rubbing-  will  help  to  restore  an  old  spot.  Rottenstone  and  lin- 
seed oil,  rubbing  in  circles,  keeping  plenty  of  oil  to  lubricate  the 
rottenstone,  will  bring  up  a  polish.  The  rottenstone  must  float  in 
the  oil,  or  it  will  scratch. 

To  Clean  Water  Spots  on  Waxed  Floors. — Rub  in  circles 
with  turpentine  and  flannel  cloth.  The  turpentine  cleans,  and  will 
partially  soften  the  wax  so  that  it  gives  up  its  dirt. 

To  Clean  Painted,  Varnished,  and  Oiled  Wood. — Use  linseed 
oil  and  petroleum,  and  rub  with  a  soft  cloth,  following  with  a  clean 
polishing  cloth. 

To  Polish  Wood. — Rub  with  turpentine  and  linseed  oil  in  equal 
proportions.  It  will  polish  like  wax  and  not  be  so  slippery.  If  this 
mixture  is  used  to  rub  unpolished  wood  and  the  rubbing  is  continued 
long  enough,  the  polish  will  be  beautiful,  with  soft  satiny  lustre, 
much  prettier  than  any  shellac  or  varnish  could  produce. 

Painting. — Paint  can  be  renovated  by  cleaning  either  with  clear 
water,  with  whiting,  or  whiting  and  water,  but  actually  to  renovate 
it  will  require  repainting.  To  do  this,  either  scrape  off,  burn  off, 
or  with  washing  soda  or  some  patent  remover  wash  off,  all  the  old 
paint.  If  this  is  not  to  be  done,  as  in  the  case  of  repainting  bread 
boxes,  enamelled  shelves,  etc.,  the  loose  paint  should  be  scratched 
off  with  fine  sandpaper.  This  should  bring  the  spots  where  the 
paint  is  off  to  a  smooth  level  with  the  paint  surrounding  them. 
Touch  these  uncovered  spots  with  the  paint  first,  going  all  over  the 


294 


HOUSEWIFERY 


article  to  be  painted.  When  this  coat  is  dry,  paint  the  whole  surface 
with  one  coat ;  when  thoroughly  dry,  put  on  the  second  coat.  If  it 
is  white  enamel  paint  that  is  to  be  used,  a  better  finish  and  a  more 
economical  piece  of  work  will  be  accomplished  by  using  two  coats  of 
house  paint,  and  then  one  or  two  of  enamel  paint.  Enamel  paint  will 
go  on  very  irregularly  if  put  directly  on  the  unpainted  surface. 

To  Glue  Furniture. — Buy  a  standard  glue,  and  if  it  seems 
thick  and  stringy,  stand  in  hot  water  until  it  has  thinned  with 
the  heat.  Clean  the  two  pieces  to  be  glued,  as  glue  will  not  adhere 
to  old  glue.  Vinegar  will  remove  old  glue.  Apply  glue  to  both 
pieces  and  fit  perfectly.  There  is  no  need  to  use  so  much  glue  as 
to  have  it  protrude  beyond  the  mend.  A  little  warm  water  wrill 
remove  the  surplus,  only  do  not  let  it  mix  with  the  glue  and  thin  it. 
When  the  mend  has  been  made,  some  press  or  support  must  be  used 
to  hold  the  pieces  tightly  together.  As  cord  often  marks,  tapes 
or  pieces  of  torn  cloth  with  sometimes  a  straight  "  splint "  makes 
a  good  bandage  for  a  break  until  the  glue  sets.  Iron  clamps,  for 
holding  furniture  together  while  glueing,  may  be  purchased  at  small 
cost. 

Wickerware. — Wickerware  can  be  stained  or  painted  just  like 
wood,  the  main  precaution  being  to  put  the  stain  on  in  two  light 
coats,  instead  of  one  dark  one,  so  that  where  the  wicker  overlaps 
in  the  pattern,  the  dye  will  not  be  too  dark.  It  will  be  found 
troublesome  to  paint  the  wicker  unless  the  paint  is  used  rather 
thin.  Use  turpentine  to  thin  the  oil  stain,  and  test  the  color  on 
an  under  side  where,  if  the  color  is  over  dark,  it  will  not  be  noticed. 
Stain  or  paint  on  newspaper  gives  one  a  very  good  idea  of  the  degree 
of  color  tone.  Do  not  use  water  stain. 

Table  Tops. — Table  tops  will  have  to  be  sandpapered  to  pro- 
duce a  new  finish.  Before  this  is  done  a  certain  amount  of  bleaching 
can  be  done  by  using  soda  to  extract  grease;  and  follow  this  with 
several  scrubbings  to  overcome  the  yellowness  from  the  soda.  To 
sandpaper,  use  fine-grained  sandpaper;  by  folding  it  on  a  block 
of  wood,  it  can  be  used  more  easily  as  well  as  more  economically. 
To  stain  an  old  table:  Sandpaper  it  down  to  as  near  one  tone  of 
color  as  possible.  Apply  the  stain,  as  an  oil  stain,  making  two 
applications  of  a  thinner  stain  rather  than  one  of  a  thicker  dye. 
This  oil  stain  should  sink  into  the  table  and  when  dry,  it  may 
be  rubbed  with  wax. 


CLEANING  AND  RENOVATION  295 

Old  tables  can  be  covered  with  a  thin  oilcloth  which  will  last 
for  a  considerable  time.  A  heavy  piece  of  linoleum  will  give  longer 
service. 

Receipt  for  Prepared  Wax. — Use  any  prepared  wax;  or  melt 
i/4  lb.  beeswax  over  water,  and  when  melted  remove  from  the  fire  and 
stir  in  one  pint  of  turpentine.  Stir  until  the  mixture  is  like  a  thick 
batter,  when  it  is  ready  to  put  into  a  jar  and  be  used  as  needed. 
The  hand  is  the  best  wax  rubber,  as  its  warmth  softens  the  wax. 
The  soft  outing  flannel  may  be  used,  and  in  either  case  put  on  a  thin 
layer  and  rub.  The  finish  is  all  in  the  rubbing;  there  cannot  be 
too  much. 

RENOVATING  SUNDRY  MATERIALS 

Lacquered  Ware. — Lacquered  ware  may  be  washed  by  using  a 
soft  cloth  or  a  sponge  which  has  been  wrung  nearly  dry  out  of  warm 
soapsuds.  Rinse  with  clear  cold  water,  wipe  off  all  the  soap,  and 
then  polish  with  a  dry  soft  cloth.  Do  not  put  into  the  water. 
Wiping  a  lacquered  bed  or  desk  set  with  thin  oil  will  do  much  to 
keep  it  from  scratching  and  it  also  prevents  the  lacquer  from  drying 
and  cracking. 

Brass  mountings  are  usually  covered  over  with  a  fine  lacquer 
finish.  This  lacquer  in  some  measure  protects  the  brass,  although 
tarnish  is  gradually  produced  by  the  air.  Perspiration  of  the  hands 
and  cleaning  will  finally  remove  the  lacquer;  then  the  surface 
must  be  either  refinished  or  polished.  To  reburnish  and  refinish  is 
often  quite  expensive,  as  in  the  case  of  knobs  and  handles  and 
brass  beds.  The  housewife  may  polish  by  using  fine  rottenstone 
and  sweet  oil.  Mix  these  two  together  as  a  paste;  rub  with  a 
light,  even  stroke,  being  sure  to  use  plenty  of  oil  so  as  to  prevent 
the  rottenstone  from  scratching.  The  success  of  the  work  depends 
entirely*  upon  the  gentleness  and  evenness  of  the  stroke.  The  house- 
wife may  find  that  it  is  advisable  to  try  first  the  oil  finish  or  one 
of  the  metal  polishers  for  fear  that  the  untrained  worker  will  rub 
too  hard  with  the  rottenstone. 

Plaster  Casts. — Plaster  casts  that  have  a  dull  finish  are  often 
seriously  harmed  by  water,  so  that  frequent  dry  dusting  and  never 
handling  the  cast  with  soiled  hands,  is  the  first  and  best  care.  To 
renew  a  plaster  cast,  cover  with  fine  whiting  and  magnesia,  or 
fullers'  earth.  This  may  be  applied  without  rubbing,  but  in  order 


296  HOUSEWIFERY 

that  all  of  the  surface  be  covered  it  may  be  patted  on  with  a  soft 
cloth  or  soft  cotton.  Roll  the  cast  in  a  cloth,  and  let  it  remain  for 
several  days;  brush  off  with  a  soft  brush,  being  careful  not  to  rub 
hard.  This  will  do  much  towards  cleaning,  but  there  is  no  special 
way  to  remove  stains  without  changing  the  color  of  the  cast. 

Oil  Paintings. — With  a  soft  sponge  or  cloth  wrung  out  of  warm 
soapsuds  (not  hot),  wash  the  painting  by  washing  a  small  strip 
each  time  and  then  wiping  it.  After  the  painting  is  clean,  apply 
a  thin  coating  of  linseed  oil  with  a  soft  cloth,  either  cheesecloth 
or  outing  flannel,  or  even  a  bit  of  gauze  into  which  a  little  cotton 
has  been  folded.  Put  this  on  evenly,  and  the  oil  will  sink  in,  doing 
somewhat  as  it  does  with  leather,  keeping  the  paintings  free  from 
cracking.  If  the  painting  is  to  be  varnished  later,  it  should  be 
varnished  two  or  three  days  after  it  has  been  oiled.  The  best  oil 
and  the  best  varnish  should  be  used. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  If  a  mattress  is  spotted,  what  simple  methods  may  be  used  to  clean  it 

without  washing  it? 

2.  How  may  lacquered  bread  boxes  be  freshened  and  made  like  new? 

3.  How  may  grease  spots  be  removed  from  carpets? 

4.  If  a  hot  water  faucet  leaks  and  steams  the  bathroom  so  tihat  the  walls 

are  darkened  and  the  wood  work  whitened,  how  may  both  be  renewed 
to   original   condition? 

5.  How  may  brass  handles  on  an  old  bureau  be  refinished  by  the  house- 

wife? 

6.  How  may  a  window  sill  be  refinished  after  having  had  paper  stuck  to  it  ? 

7.  Given  cretonne  draperies,  how  may  they  be  cleansed  in  the  home? 

REFERENCES 

BALDERSTON,  L.  RAY,  LAUNDERING.    L.  Ray  Balder ston. 

BRANNT,  WILLIAM  T.,  DRY  CLEANER,  SCOURER  AND  GARMENT  DYER.    H.  C. 

Baird  &  Co. 

CLARK,  T.  M.,  CABE  OF  THE  HOUSE.    Macmillan  Co. 
FARMERS'    BULLETIN    1099,    HOME    LAUNDERING.      U.    S.    Department    of 

Agriculture. 
FARMERS'  BULLETIN  861,  REMOVAL  OF  STAINS  FROM  CLOTHTNG  AND  OTHER 

TEXTILES.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
PARLOA,  MARIA,  HOME  ECONOMICS.    Century  Co. 
RANKIN,  MARGARET,  SCIENCE  OF  LAUNDRY  WORK.  Blackie  &  Son,  London. 


CHAPTER  XI 

DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 

IN  THIS  day  of  preventive  treatment  rather  than  cures,  why  not 
apply  the  idea  to  the  home  ?  Why  not  try  to  ward  off  the  need  of 
disinfectants  and  fumigants  as  cures,  by  adopting  effective  pre- 
ventive measures?  The  housewife  should  attack  the  sanitation 
problems  of  the  home  daily  as  a  housekeeper,  rather  than  prepare 
for  special  emergencies  which  must  be  met  with  heroic  measures. 
Various  points  which  concern  disinfection  and  fumigation  have 
been  suggested  in  the  chapters  on  Plumbing,  Household  Pests, 
and  Cleaning.  The  following  outline  states  some  of  the  practical 
preventive  measures  to  be  taken  by  the  housewife  in  her  daily  work. 

PREVENTIVE  MEASURES  IN  HOUSEHOLD  SANITATION 

A.  The  Grounds  about  the  House. — Cover  all  rain  barrels 
and  cisterns  to  prevent  breeding  of  mosquitoes ;  put  a  film  of  kerosene 
on  pools  of  water  during  the  summer. 

Screen  all  privies  to  prevent  flies  from  carrying  disease. 

Test  all  water  for  purity. 

Carry  all  waste  water  far  enough  from  the  house  and  from  cis- 
terns and  wells  to  prevent  contamination. 

Clean  and  sterilize  by  whitewashing  all  outhouses — cow  stalls, 
pig  pens,  chicken  coops,  etc. 

B.  The  Cellar. — Ventilate  the  cellar  by  providing  two  or  more 
open  windows,  to  keep  it  dry  and  hence  sanitary  as  a  storage  room, 
and  as  a  foundation  to  the  house ;  if  there  is  but  one  window,  open 
half  of  it  and  run  an  air  flue  from  the  other  half  to  a  point  near 
the  cellar  floor. 

Whitewash  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  cellar;  this  cleans  and 
sterilizes. 

Place  a  concrete  floor  in  the  cellar  to  promote  dryness. 

C.  The  Kitchen. — Keep  the  kitchen  well  aired,  because  this  will 
keep  it  cooler. 

Keep  the  sink  clean,  as  soiled  pipes  not  only  produce  odors,  but 
may  draw  vermin. 

Scald  all  milk  bottles  and  pans,  air  well,  and  keep  clean. 

Keep  the  refrigerator  free  from  old  food,  lest  the  food  decay 
and  become  a  breeding  place  for  bacteria. 

297 


298  HOUSEWIFERY 

Wash  the  ice  before  putting  it  into  the  refrigerator,  lest  it 
carry  in  unnecessary  dirt. 

Empty  the  garbage  can  each  day,  wash,  and  air  it. 

If  garbage  is  not  used  as  food  for  animals,  or  removed  by  the 
community,  it  should  be  buried  to  be  used  as  fertilizer,  or  burned 
to  avoid  its  attracting  vermin  or  putrefying. 

D.  The  Laundry. — Keep  soiled  clothes  dry  and  well  aired  until 
washed.     Wash  often  enough  to  prevent  any  chance  of  odors  from 
soiled  clothes.     Clean  clothes,  fresh  from  the  laundry,  are  safe, 
whereas  soiled  clothes  may  carry  the  risk  of  disease,  and  may  attract 
vermin. 

Isolate  and  wash  separately  all  clothing  that  has  been  used  in 
connection  with  colds  or  any  other  sickness.  As  a  precaution  wash 
laundry  bags  and  clean  clothes  baskets. 

E.  The  Bedroom. — Air  beds  at  the  same  time  that  the  rooms 
are  being  aired,  half  an  hour  to  an  hour. 

Keep  beds  free  from  dust,  as  dust  invites  vermin. 

F.  The  House  in  General. — Prevent  the  collecting  of  dust, 
which  not  only  makes  the  house  untidy,  but  draws  many  kinds  of 
small  household  pests. 

Do  all  dusting  with  dampened  or  oiled  dusters  or  sweepers,  so  as 
not  to  spread  the  dust. 

G.  Personal  Cleanliness  is  for  Each. — When  one  has  plenty 
of   soap  and  water  it   is  easy;   without,   everyone  must   exercise 
great  perseverance. 

Mothers  in  home,  teachers  in  school  can  promote  health  by 
urging  a  few  rules  used  by  Dr.  Theobald  Smith  in  his  School 
Health  Work. 

Do  not  spit  if. you  can  help  it. 

Do  not  put  fingers  in  mouth. 

Do  not  wet  pencils  in  the  mouth  or  fingers  when  turning  leaves 
of  books. 

Do  not  put  money  or  pins  in  the  mouth. 

Keep  hands,  nose  and  mouth,  clean. 

DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 

Every  housewife  should  be  acquainted  with  disinfectants  and 
f umigants,  because  drains,  garbage  cans,  and  ice  boxes  need  them ; 
and  cellars  iinust  be  kept  free  from  chance  causes  of  odors  or  sick- 
ness. One  must  be  ready  for  the  unexpected  need  of  an  exter- 


DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 


299 


minator  for  vermin,  or  the  need  of  a  disinfectant  or  fumigant  during 
and  after  the  appearance  of  disease. 

The  terms  disinfectants,  germicides,  fumigants,  and  the  like  are 
often  used  without  an  understanding  of  the  terms ;  indeed,  they  seem 
often  to  be  used  interchangeably. 

Disinfectants  and  germicides  are  substances  which  destroy  dis- 
ease germs.  Antiseptics  retard  the  growth  of  germs,  but  do  not 
necessarily  destroy  germ  life.  Salt  and  sugar  may  preserve  food 
by  retarding  germ  action  but  they  do  not  destroy  the  germ.  Bichlo- 
ride of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  is  an  antiseptic  if  used  in  a 
solution  of  1  part  to  300,000  parts  of  water,  and  is  a  disinfectant 
in  a  solution  of  1  part  to  1000  parts  of  water  (1  tablet  to  1  pint  of 
water)  ;  the  latter  destroys  germ  life.  Both  solutions  are 
poisons.  Fumigantsi  and  deodorants  destroy  or  cover  up  odors, 
and  may  disinfect. 

In  nature  there  are  many  powerful  and  safe  disinfectants :  sun- 
light, dryness,  cleanliness,  and  heat — so-called  physical  means  of 
disinfection.  Dry  air  and  sunlight  are  foes  to  germs;  moisture 
and  filth  are  their  best  friends.  With  sunlight,  cleanliness,  and  dry 
air,  decaying  vegetation  and  filth  diminish,  and  in  the  same  measure 
the  chance  for  health  increases.  Heat  like  oven  heat  up  to  300° 
Fahrenheit,  or  boiling  temperature  of  212°  Fahrenheit  for  one 
hour,  will  thoroughly  disinfect.  To  test  oven  heat  without  a  ther- 
mometer, lay  a  small  wad  of  cotton  in  the  oven;  at  300°  Fahrenheit, 
the  cotton  will  scorch  as  if  ironed  with  too  hot  an  iron.  Boiling 
for  ten  minutes  in  a  closed  vessel  destroys  all  disease  germs  except 
the  spores,  which  may  later  develop  into  germs,  and  makes  disin- 
fecting of  clothing  possible.  In  the  laundering  of  clothing  various 
alkaline  reagents  are  used  which  increase  the  disinfecting  power  of 
the  water,  and  decrease  the  length  of  time  required  for  disinfecting 
ordinary  soiled  clothing.  Many  of  our  household  cleaning  methods 
fortunately  are  disinfecting  methods. 

Let  the  study  begin  with  these  simple  everyday  methods.  They 
are  effective  and  inexpensive ;  besides,  the  substances  are  so  familiar 
as  to  cause  no  hesitancy  in  their  use. 

Soap,  borax,  ammonia,  and  washing  soda  are  sufficient  in  the 
cleaning  of  ice-boxes,  window  boxes,  basins,  and  flush  closets  which 
are  to  be  cleaned  daily. 

Soapsuds  Solution. — One  cake  of  soap  dissolved  in  3  quarts 
of  water. 


300  HOUSEWIFERY 

Soda  Solution. — One-half  pound  of  washing  soda  dissolved  in  3 
gallons  of  water.  Either  solution  may  be  used  for  wall  or  floor 
washes,  when  a  room  is  to  be  disinfected.  Such  a  solution  is  easily 
applied  with  a  pail  of  hot  water  and  a  broom  or  mop. 

It  has  been  proved  that  the  usual  methods  employed  in  washing 
clothes  disinfect  the  clothing  for  general  use.  A  good  laundering 
with  soap  and  water,  five  to  ten  minutes  boil  or  hot  scald,  the  sun 
and  air  in  drying,  and  finally,  the  heat  of  the  iron  in  ironing,  are 
sufficient  for  disinfecting  clothing. 

Lime  in  its  various  forms  is  especially  good  as  a  disinfectant 
or  germicide.  It  is  cheap  and  harmless. 

Quick-lime  is  lime  oxide,  and  has  great  power  of  absorbing  water. 
On  exposure  to  the  air  it  absorbs  so  much  water  that  it  breaks  up 
into  a  powdered  form  called  air-slaked  lime.  Quick-lime  is  often 
put  about  damp  cellars  and  out  houses  because  of  this  power  to 
absorb  moisture.  When  it  breaks  down  into  a  powder,  it  has  no 
more  power  to  absorb  water  from  the  air,  and  no  more  power 
as  a  germicide. 

Slaked  lime  (hydrated  lime)  and  milk  of  lime  are  used  to  dis- 
infect excreta.  A  5  per  cent,  solution  of  slaked  lime  will  require  one 
hour  to  do  its  work  thoroughly. 

Whitewash  is  slaked  lime  thinned  with  water  until  it  is  of  the 
consistency  to  spread  with  a  brush.  Adding  glue  helps  to  make  the 
whitewash  stick  to  the  surface.  Whitewash  is  much  used  on  fences, 
outhouses,  cellars,  and  chicken  coops,  to  kill  bacteria  and  vermin, 
to  deodorize,  and  to  improve  appearance. 

Recipe  for  Whitewash  * 
y2  bu.  lime  slaked  with  boiling  water 
1/2  peck  of  salt  dissolved  in  warm  water 
3  Ibs.  ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste 
%  Ib.  powdered  Spanish  whiting 
1  Ib.  clear  glue,  dissolved  in  warm  water 
Mix  and  let  stand  for  several  days.    Use  hot  as  possible. 

Lime  water  may  be  used  to  rinse  milk  pans  and  bottles,  and 
chambers.  A  3  per  cent,  solution  is  known  to  kill  typhoid  bacteria, 
and  a  20  per  cent,  solution  will  disinfect  excreta.  This  requires 
from  one-half  to  one  hour. 

Chlorinated  lime,  commonly  called  chloride  of  lime,  and  sold 
as  a  bleaching  powder,  is  a  disinfectant  when  used  dry,  as  when 

*U.   S.  Bureau  of  Standards,   Dept.   of  Commerce.     Circular  No.   70. 


DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS  301 

put  down  basins  and  toilets.  As  a  bleaching  solution,  when  used 
in  washing,  it  not  only  bleaches  but  disinfects.  It  deteriorates 
rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Hydrogen  peroxide  is  an  unstable  compound,  which  is  readily 
affected  by  light  and  heat.  Therefore  it  should  be  kept  in  dark- 
colored  glass  bottles,  and  tightly  corked.  It  is  especially  good  for 
use  in  connection  with  discharging  wounds  to  disinfect  the  suppura- 
tion products.  It  is  not  used  so  much  as  formerly  as  a  general  dis- 
infectant for  wounds,  or  as  a  gargle,  on  account  of  its  irritating 
effect  on  the  membranes.  Its  action  is  over  in  about  five  minutes. 

Alcohol. — Alcohol  above  50  per  cent,  strength  is  a  good  disin- 
fectant for  the  hands,  or  for  a  needle  that  is  to  be  used  to  remove 
a  splinter. 

The  preceding  disinfectants  have  been  those  used  in  regular 
home  methods.  The  ones  given  below  are  stronger  in  action  and 
poisonous.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  their  use,  and  it  is 
quite  necessary  that  the  one  doing  the  work  should  be  thoroughly 
trained  for  her  task.  For  two  reasons  is  this  necessary — the  chance 
for  a  fatal  mistake,  and  the  risk  of  having  an  essential  point  omitted 
so  that  doubt  enters  into  the  point  as  to  whether  the  work  is  thor- 
oughly done. 

Tincture  of  iodine  is  very  good  to  apply  to  any  fresh  wound 
which  may  later  be  infected,  such  as  an  open  bruise,  a  cat  scratch,  or 
a  cut  from  a  rusty  nail.  It  is  bought  in  a  7  per  cent,  solution,  and 
may  be  used  in  this  strength  or  in  half -strength. 

Bichloride  of  mercury,  or  corrosive  sublimate,  is  purchased  in 
tablet  form.  It  is  a  poison  and  should  be  handled  as  such,  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  when  not  in  use  should  be  so  stored  or  bottled 
that  no  one  can  possibly  mistake  it  for  medicine.  To  tie  a  small  toy 
bell  around  the  neck  of  the  bottle  is  a  good  safeguard,  especially  for 
dark  places.  (White  of  egg  is  the  antidote.)  It  is  a  powerful 
disinfectant,  but  limited  as  to  its  use  because  soaps,  proteins,  and 
sulphur  precipitate  it.  It  will  not  stain  fabrics,  except  after  con- 
stant and  long-continued  soaking.  But  it  does  corrode  metal,  and  so 
cannot  be  used  for  disinfecting  any  metal  utensil.  Its  best  use  is  for 
the  disinfection  of  smooth  surfaces  such  as  rubber,  enamel  and 
glassware,  and  for  clean  hands.  For  the  hands  a  solution  of  1 
tablet  (71/2  grains)  to  2  pints  of  water  should  be  used.  Do  not 
mix  in  a  metal  dish.  For  other  disinfection  use  1  tablet  to  1  pint 


302 


HOUSEWIFERY 


of  water.  Allow  from  one-half  to  one  hour  for  disinfection  of 
things  placed  in  the  solution. 

Formalin  is  a  water  solution  of  formaldehyde  gas,  valuable  as 
a  disinfectant.  It  is  second  to  bichloride  of  mercury  as  a  disin- 
fectant of  rubber,  and  is  good  for  clothing  and  utensils.  It  may  be 
purchased  at  the  drug  store  as  a  40  per  cent,  solution  and  reduced 
to  a  4  per  cent,  solution,  by  adding  some  of  it  to  ten  times  its  bulk 
of  water),  which  is  the  strength  used  for  disinfection.  Soak  the 
articles  in  this  4  per  cent,  solution  for  one  hour. 

Carbolic  Acid  Solution  (Antidote — Alcohol). — The  usual 
strength  in  which  this  is  used  is  5  per  cent. — in  the  proportion  of 
1  Ib.  of  carbolic  crystals  to  2l/2  gals,  of  hot  water.  Stir  or  shake  in 
a  corked  bottle  until  the  mixture  is  free  from  the  small  drop  for- 


Table  of  Disinfectants 


Strength 

Time 

Used  for 

Boilin.fi!  water 

H-l  hr. 

All  articles  that  are  not 

Slaked  lime  

2  Ib.  lime  to  1  pt. 

Ihr  

harmed  by  water. 
Excreta. 

Milk  of  lime 

water 
2  Ibs.  slaked  lime  to 

Excreta. 

Lime  water  
Chlorinated  lime 

4  qt.  water 
^2  cup  lime  to  4  qt. 
water 

/^j   Ib     chloride   of 

K-lhr.. 

Rinsing  milk  vessels  and 
chambers;    typhoid 
bacteria. 
Flush    closets,    basins, 

(chloride  of  lime) 
Hydrogen  peroxide 

lime    to    1    gal. 
water 
Undiluted 

5  min. 

bleaching. 
Discharging  wounds. 

Alcohol  
Tincture  of  iodine.  .  . 

Bichloride     of     (a) 

50  per  cent.-70  per 
cent. 
7  per  cent.,  or  1  part 
7  per  cent,  solu- 
tion 1  part  water 
1   tablet    (7^2  S1*  ) 

1  min.  .  . 
1  min.  .  . 

Hands,  instruments. 

Fresh  wound  where  dan- 
ger of  infection. 

Hands. 

mercury 

(b) 

Formalin,  4  per  cent. 

Carbolic  acid  
Creolin  .  . 

2  pt.  water 
1   tablet    to    1    pt. 
water 
1  cup  40  per  cent, 
solution  to  5  pt. 
water 
5  per  cent  

] 

J^-l  hr.. 
Ihr  

Ihr  

Clothing,     rubber, 
enamel,    glassware. 
Rubber,     clothing, 
utensils. 

Clothing  that  cannot  be 
boiled. 

Lysol  or  cresol     .    . 

\\-2  per  cent  

1A-1  hr.. 

Same  as  carbolic. 

Tricresol  

DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 


303 


mation  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Exposure  for  one  hour  to  a 
5  per  cent,  solution  is  usually  effective  for  bacteria,  not  for  spores. 
In  cleaning  slop-jars  and  chambers  use  a  string  mop,  as  carbolic 
is  very  irritating  to  the  skin.  It  is  generally  used  to  disinfect  articles 
that  cannot  be  boiled ;  articles,  like  clothing  and  bedding,  which  can 
be  boiled,  can  be  completely  sterilized  by  boiling  in  water  without  the 
use  of  carbolic  acid. 

Creolin,  lysol  or  cresol,  and  tricresol  are  coal-tar  products 
used  in  place  of  carbolic  acid.  Creolin  has  about  the  same  value 
as  pure  carbolic,  and  lysol  and  tricresol  are  about  three  times  as 
powerful.  They  are  less  irritating  to  the  skin,  but  are  more  expen- 
sive than  carbolic.  Use  a  1  per  cent,  or  2  per  cent,  solution  dis- 
solved in  tepid  water. 

MILD  ANTISEPTIC 

Boric  acid  or  boracic  acid  is  a  mild  non-irritating  antiseptic. 
Because  of  its  mildness  it  is  a  very  general  home  treatment  for  eye, 
ear,  nose  and  mouth.  Boric  acid  dissolves  easily  in  hot  water,  and 
a  saturated  solution,  diluted  by  equal  quantity  of  water,  gives  the 
usual  strength  solution. 

FUMIGANTS 

Fumigants  are  agents  which  give  off  a  gas  which  is  destructive 
to  bacteria  or  to  vermin.  They  are  not  used  as  much  as  formerly 
after  contagious  diseases  like  measles.  In  ordinary  contagious  dis- 
eases the  main  reliance  now  is  placed  upon  thorough  soap  and 
water  cleaning.  If  of  real  value,  fumigants  must  be  strong  in  the 
gas  they  give  off;  this  makes  it  dangerous  for  an  untrained  person 
to  carry  on  the  work,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  the  results  will 
scarcely  -pay  her  for  her  labor  and  attendant  risk.  However,  it  is 
well  for  the  housewife  to  know  about  these  agents,  for  they  are  useful 
in  their  ability  to  destroy  vermin;  and  she  may,  in  the  absence  of 
a  trained  nurse  or  a  Board  of  Health  representative,  be  called  upon 
to  fumigate  a  room  after  sickness.  It  is  important  for  her  to  be 
thoroughly  informed  as  to  the  method  before  she  undertakes  to 
do  the  work. 

Formaldehyde  gas  and  sulphur  fumes  are  the  usual  fumi- 
gants. The  sulphur  is  most  often  used  to  exterminate  household 
pests,  while  formaldehyde  is  a  valuable  disinfectant,  but  does  not 
kill  vermin. 


304 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Formaldehyde  gas  may  be  produced  in  several  ways.  One  espe- 
cially effective  way  is  to  combine  potassium  permanganate  with 
formalin.  Allow  one-half  pound  of  potassium  permanganate  to  each 
1000  cu.  ft.  of.  air  space.  To  every  half-pound  of  permanganate 
allow  1  pint  of  formalin.  Prepare  the  room  as  for  any  fumigation 
(see  page  304),  and  when  all  is  ready,  put  the  permanganate  in  a 
galvanized  iron  kettle  or  pan,  which  is  set  upon  bricks  or  in  water 
to  protect  the  floor  from  heat;  pour  on  the  formalin  and  imme- 
diately leave  the  room.  The  formaldehyde  gas  is  given  off,  which 
is  most  irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane  and  is  poisonous.  Its 
penetrative  power  is  not  very  great,  so  that  it  is  necessary  for  every- 
thing in  the  room  to  be  entirely  exposed  to  its  action. 

Park  and  Williams  *  give  the  formulae  for  formaldehyde  gener- 
ation found  on  page  304. 

Sulphur  Fumes. — Sulphur  is  not  very  effective  in  destroying 
germs,  but  it  is  very  valuable  in  the  extermination  of  pests.  Sul- 
phur fumigation  involves  the  danger  of  fire  as  well  as  of  inhaling 
the  poisonous  fumes.  A  sulphur  candle  or  flowers  of  sulphur 
may  be  used ;  the  candle  is  easily  obtained  and  the  wick  helps  to 
keep  .it  burning.  For  flowers  of  sulphur  pour  on  a  tablespoon  or 
more  of  alcohol  to  insure  its  burning;  the  worker  will  not  then 
need  to  go  into  the  room  to  relight  the  sulphur,  and  expose  herself  to 
the  fumes.  Allow  4  Ibs.  of  sulphur  to  every  1000  cu.  ft.  of  air 
space.  Expose  eight  to  twelve  hours. 

Two  Formulas  for  Formaldehyde  Generation 

Either  will  disinfect  1000  cu.  ft.  in  5  hours. 

I.  Potassium   permanganate    10  oz. 

Formaldehyde  solution,  40  per  cent 9  oz. 

Water     4.5  oz. 

II.  Quicklime    2  oz. 

Potassium   permanganate    5  oz. 

Oxalic  acid %  gram 

Formalin    5  oz. 

Water     2y2  oz. 

Mix  lime  and  potassium  permanganate  in  pan.  Pour  over  this  the 
remaining  substances  in  solution. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  effective  in  destroying  household  pests, 
but  is  one  of  the  most  poisonous  gases  known,  and  for  that  reason 
work  with  it  should  be  done  only  by  an  experienced  person. 

*  Park  and  Williams,  Pathogenic  Microorganisms. 


DISINFECTANTS  AND  FUMIGANTS 


305 


To  Prepare  a  Room  for  Fumigation. — Knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  worker  is  necessary,  and  when  she  is  thoroughly  trained  to 
do  the  work  she  will  not  need  to  be  cautioned  against  either  fire 
danger  or  the  risk  of  inhaling  the  fumes.  Get  all  the  things  in 
the  room  ready.  Arrange  the  contents  of  the  room  so  that  every- 
thing will  be  exposed  to  the  gas.  Bedding  should  be  hung  over  a 
line.  Do  not  remove  from  the  room  anything  that  was  there  during 
the  illness.  If  sulphur  is  used,  the  metal  door  knobs  and  bed  should 
have  a  thin  coating  of  fresh  (non-salty)  fat.  Sulphur  will  corrode 
metal  and  will  fade  color;  but  colored  fabrics  may  have  to  be  left 
in,  subject  to  fading,  in  order  to  run  no  risk  of  leaving  germs  or 
vermin  in  draperies,  etc. 

Seal  the  room  by  closing  the  window  and  door  cracks  with  paper 
or  cotton,  and  stopping  the  key-holes.  Put  the  potassium  perman- 
ganate, the  potassium  cyanide,  or  the  sulphur  candle,  in  a  galvanized 
pail  or  stone  crock.  Stand  the  pail  or  crock  on  two  bricks  or  in  a 
larger  pan  of  water,  so  that  the  heat  created  by  the  chemical  action 
or  from  the  burning  sulphur  may  have  no  chance  to  burn  the  floor 
or  other  surrounding  material.  Pour  the  formalin  on  the  perman- 
ganate, or  the  sulphuric  acid  and  water  on  the  cyanide,  or  light  the 
sulphur,  and  go  quickly  from  the  room.  The  door  may  be  addi- 
tionally sealed  on  the  outside  after  closing  it.  Be  sure  to  have 
everything  so  planned  and  ready  that  there  will  be  no  need  to 
hesitate  or  to  try  to  go  back.  For  a  person  who  may  be  slow  from 
inexperience,  it  is  a  good  safeguard  to  tie  a  moist  handkerchief  over 
the  nose  and  mouth.  The  room  should  be  kept  closed  for  eight  to 
twelve  hours ;  then  it  must  be  thoroughly  aired  and  cleaned,  so  that 
no  fumes  remain. 

To  Clean  Rubber  Gloves. — Wash  them  in  cold  water  and  then 
boil  2-5  minutes.  Overboiling  will  weaken  the  rubber.  As  soap 
is  a  good  disinfectant,  wash  both  sides  of  the  gloves  in  warm  water 
and  soap,  then  dry.  Gloves  that  are  to  be  worn  to  prevent  infection 
should  be  tested  for  small  holes.  When  the  gloves  are  in  water  air 
bubbles  will  mark  any  hole.  Such  a  glove  is  not  safe. 

SUGGESTIVE  LIST  OF  HOUSEHOLD  DISINFECTANTS 

The  above  suggestions  include  established  solutions  and  methods 
of  fumigating  and  disinfecting.    Through  advertising,  various  new 
disinfectants  and  f umigants  may  reach  the  housewife ;  but  the  sim- 
plest and  most  active  have  been  suggested.     Additional  problems 
20 


306 


HOUSEWIFERY 


regarding  household  pests  are  given  in  Chapter  XII   (page  307) 
and  that  chapter  and  this  may  well  be  considered  together. 


Salt  and  water 

Listerine 

Potassium  permanganate 

Boiling  water 
Soap  and  water 
Soda  and  water 
Lime 

Carbolic  acid 
Creolin 

Lysol  or  cresol 
Tricresol 

Alcohol 

Tincture  of  iodine 

Carbolic  acid 

Lysol  and  tricresol 

Formalin 

Bichloride  of  mercury 

Sulphur 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas 
Formaldehyde  gas 


are  standard  mouth  washes,  and 
they  may  be  used,  in  a  dilute 
form  as  a  gargle. 


are  standard  solutions  for 
washing,  cleaning  and  disin- 
fecting cuspidors,  chambers, 
flush  closets,  clothing. 


are    standard    killers    of    germs 
such  as  may  produce  disease. 


are   standard    fumigants. 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  precautions  can  every  housewife  take  in  caring  for  soiled  clothing? 

2.  Suppose  one  member  of  a  family  must  nurse  another  who  has  a  severe 

nose  and  throat  cold.    What  care  should  the  well  member  take  for  her 
own  safety?    List  all  suggestions. 

3.  What  are  the  usual  ways  and  means  whereby  contagion  may  be  spread  ? 

List. 

4.  How  may  a  bed  be  treated  after  a  severe  sickness  ? 

REFERENCES 

BROADHURST,  JEAN,  HOME  AND  COMMUNITY  HYGIENE.  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Company. 

BUCHANAN,  ESTELLE  D.,  AND  ROBERT  E.,  HOUSEHOLD  BACTERIOLOGY.  Mac- 
mi  llan  Co. 

CONN,  H.  W.,  BACTERIA,  YEASTS  AND  MOLDS.  Ginn  &  Co. 

DAKIN  AND  DUNHAM,  HANDBOOK  OF  ANTISEPTICS.    Macmillan  Co. 

ELLIOT,  S.  MARIA,  HOUSEHOLD  HYGIENE.  American  School  of  Home 
Economics. 

LIPMAN,  J.  G.,  BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.  Macmillan  Co. 

MAXWELL  AND  POPE,  PRACTICAL  NURSING.    G.  P.  Putnam  &  Co. 

POPE,  ANN  E.,  POPE'S  MANUAL  OF  NURSING  PROCEDURE.  G.  P.  Putnam  & 
Sons. 

RICHARDS,  E.  H.,  SANITATION  AND  DAILY  LIFE.     Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 

SAUNDERS,  GEORGIANA  J.,  MODERN  METHODS  OF  NURSING.  W.  B.  Saunders 
Co.,  Philadelphia. 

TALBOT,  MARION,  HOUSE  SANITATION.    Whitcomb  &  Barrows. 


CHAPTER  XII 
HOUSEHOLD  PESTS 

Prevention. — Household  pests  are  troublesome,  dangerous,  and 
destructive ;  therefore  they  call  for  constant  vigilance.  They  crawl 
or  fly,  hide  in  dark  unexpected  nooks,  and  often  come  from  filthy 
places.  They  reproduce  so  rapidly  that  they  are  much  easier  to 
keep  out  than  to  exterminate  after  they  have  gained  a  foothold. 
Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  preventing  pests. 

Prevention  means  to  fill  up  cracks  and  holes,  allow  no  dust  to 
collect  or  spilled  food  to  remain,  keep  food  tightly  covered,  use 
screens  or  traps,  fill  up  stagnant  pools,  cover  rain  barrels,  keep  house 
leaders  free  from  stagnant  water,  screen  or  fumigate  manure  piles, 
and  use  insecticide  in  garbage  containers,  privies,  and  manure  piles. 
The  cleanest  house,  however,  may  gain  the  unexpected  visitor  in 
the  grocery  basket,  laundry  bundle,  or  even  in  the  valise  when 
travelling.  Cleanliness  is  the  one  great  preventive  measure,  but  not 
the  absolute  cure,  because  of  the  possibility  of  this  unexpected 
entrance  of  vermin. 

Extermination  becomes  a  cure  of  a  more  heroic  nature  and 
involves  much  work,  and  often  the  use  of  some  powerful  agent. 
Methods  of  extermination  include  closing  runways  and  cracks;  use 
of  powders,  fumes,  poisons,  and  traps. 

Closing  runways  is  accomplished  by  using  putty,  plaster-of- 
Paris,  wooden  strips,  etc. 

Putty  is  the  best  agent  to  use  with  wood.  It  may  be  bought 
at  the  paint  shop,  and  colored  to  match  the  wood.  If  the  cracks 
are  not  too  large,  putty  will  make  a  good  filling;  but  very  wide 
cracks  had  better  have  a  strip  of  wood  put  in,  with  putty  on  each 
side  of  the  strip.  Molding  may  often  be  used  to  advantage. 

Plaster-of-Paris  is  also  used  to  fill  cracks;  it  is  bought  as  a 
powder,  and  is  mixed  with  water  when  and  as  it  is  needed.  It 
hardens  almost  immediately.  It  can  be  mixed  in  an  old  cup  or  tin 
cover,  or  even  in  a  cardboard  box,  just  as  it  is  to  be  used  and  in  such 
small  quantities  as  can  be  handled  quickly.  It  is  very  white,  and 
may  be  colored  to  match  the  rest  of  the  wall  or  floor;  any  coloring 

307 


308 


HOUSEWIFERY 


desired  may  be  put  into  the  water  before  mixing  it  with  the 
plaster-of-Paris. 

Powders. — The  second  step,  which  calls  for  the  use  of  non- 
poisonous  and  non-inflammable  methods,  is  by  spreading  powder 
such  as  borax,  alum,  soap  powder,  or  even  pepper.  Next  to  these  in 
strength  are  pyrethrum,  Persian  insect  powder,  and  bulach — a  Cali- 
fornia product.  The  next  in  strength  and  last  of  the  powders  to  use 
are  strychnine  and  arsenic.  These  should  be  used  with  the  greatest 
care  and  only  as  the  last  resort,  as  they  are  dangerous  poisons. 

Powder  can  be  sprinkled  in  cracks  and  about  shelves  or  drawers ; 
on  shelves  try  to  keep  it  on  the  back  edge  so  that  it  will  not  mix 
with  the  contents  of  the  shelf.  It  is  wise  to  blow  the  powder  far 
back  into  cracks,  and  for  that  work,  one  may  buy  a  blower  which 
by  means  of  its  bellows  blows  the  powder  deep  into  crevices. 

Strychnine  and  arsenic  may  be  used  as  powders,  or  in  a  solution 
with  a 'paint  brush  or  feather.  To  be  sure  of  better  control  of  these 
poisons,  either  may  be  mixed  with  a  paste  made  of  flour  and  water 
and  spread  on  strips  of  paper,  which  in  turn  are  laid  in  drawers 
or  closets  or  on  tables  and  drain  boards,  especially  at  night.  The 
great  danger  of  using  these  powerful  poisons  in  the  kitchen  is 
obvious,  and  should  be  carefully  considered  beforehand. 

Fumes. — In  the  place  of  powders,  remedies  with  strong  pungent 
odor  may  be  used,  such  as  kerosene  or  ammonia,  and  also  those  that 
are  not  only  pungent  but  also  highly  inflammable,  such  as  gasoline 
or  benzine.  The  danger  of  these  last  two  is  the  risk  of  fire,  and  both 
should  be  used  out  of  doors  as  much  as  possible ;  or  if  indoors,  with 
all  windows  open  and  absolutely  no  fire  or  open  flame  of  any  kind 
about.  Poisonous  gas  fumes  such  as  sulphur,  formalin,  or  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  may  be  used,  but  it  is  best  always  to  try  thoroughly 
the  simplest  and  safest  methods  first,  using  the  inflammable  or 
poisonous  only  as  a  last  resort. 

Kerosene,  ammonia,  or  carbolic  acid  may  be  used  in  wash  water, 
or  by  themselves  as  washes  on  the  floors  and  in  the  closets.  They 
should  be  applied  with  a  paint  brush  in  order  to  save  the  hand. 

Inflammables. — The  usual  method  of  using  gasoline  or  benzine 
is  to  saturate  the  articles  of  clothing  or  upholstery  by  spraying  it 
in  with  a  sprinkler,  or  a  brush,  or  by  pouring  it  on  to  soak  the  place 
where  the  vermin  have  deposited  their  eggs.  To  do  this  work,  the 
greatest  care  must  be  exercised ;  a  careless  worker  should  never  be 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  309 

allowed  to  do  it.  The  work  is  best  done  out  of  doors  and  usually 
mattresses,  pillows,  clothing,  etc.,  can  be  carried  outside.  To  do 
the  work  on  the  lawn  will  kill  the  grass,  so  work  on  a  walk  or  gravel 
path.  Be  sure  to  let  the  gasoline  all  evaporate  before  using  the 
article ;  about  twenty-four  hours  should  be  allowed  for  this.  Don't 
light  matches  or  bring  any  light  to  see  whether  the  gasoline  is 
destroying  the  pest.  It  may  destroy  you. 

Sulphur,  Formalin. — These  fumes  are  very  pungent  and  irri- 
tating to  the  nasal  passage,  besides  being  poisonous,  if  inhaled. 
Sulphur  fumes  will  bleach  out  color,  so  that  carpets  and  any  color  in 
the  room  may  be  effected.  Metal  beds  and  all  door  knobs  will  have 
to  be  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  lard  or  fresh  fat  to  keep  the 
sulphur  from  corroding  the  metal.  Formalin  is  used  for  fumigat- 
ing, and  is  a  germicide.  (See  chapter  on  Fumigation,  page  303.) 

Traps  and  Screens. — These  exterminators  are  in  a  class  by 
themselves.  They  may  or  may  not  kill;  often  they  simply  prohibit 
action,  as  do  many  traps,  mosquito  nets,  etc.  With  some  traps 
there  is  a  sweet  attractive  mixture  which  may  contain  a  poison. 
Some  traps  operate  by  killing.  Any  trap  should  be  kept  clean 
because,  as  in  mouse  and  rat  traps,  the  odor  may  be  a  warning  to  the 
otherwise  next  victim ;  scalding  is  helpful  in  removing  odors. 

INDIVIDUAL  PESTS 

House  Fly. — A  carrier  of  disease,  hence  a  menace  to  health 
(Fig.  163). 

Prevention. — 1.  Do  away  with  breeding  places  of  maggots  in 
manure  piles,  chicken  yards,  privy  vaults.  Build  fly-proof.  De- 
stroy maggots  with  kerosene,  borax,  chloride  of  lime,  hellebore, 
iron  sulphate. 

2.  Screen  all  windows  and  doors,  especially  kitchen  and  dining- 
room. 

3.  Absolute  cleanliness  in  house. 

4.  Keep  food  and  garbage  containers  tightly  covered. 

5.  Store  no  soiled  papers  and  cloths. 
Extermination.— I.  "Swat  the  fly." 

2.  Sticky  flypaper. 

3.  Fly  traps — various  good  types.     A  good  home-made  trap 
consists  of  a  cup  or  can  on  the  end  of  a  stick  with  hot  soapy 
water  in  cup ;  hold  under  flies  on  ceiling. 


310 


HOUSEWIFERY 


4.  Natural  enemy  is  the  centipede. 

5.  Poisons :  to  get  best  results  from  these  remedies,,  darken  the 
room  except  one  window;  place  poison  in  light  near  this  window. 

Pyrethrum. — Persian  insect  powder  and  bulach.  Sprinkle  lib- 
erally at  night  in  unused  rooms.  Sweep  up  in  morning. 

Formaldehyde. — 1  part  formaldehyde  to  10  parts  water.  Place 
in  saucers. 

Bichromate  of  Potash. — 1  part  bichromate  to  2  parts  water. 
Place  in  saucers. 


FIG.  163. — The  house  fly,  Muscf  domestica:    larva  with  details  at  right,  puparium  at  left 

Mosquitoes. — Carriers  of  malaria,  yellow  fever,  and  several 
other  fevers. 

Prevention. — By  treatment  of  breeding  places. 

1.  Drain  or  fill  up  ponds,  pools,  etc.,  or  if  this  is  not  possible — 
Spread  kerosene  oil  over  surface  every  two  weeks  during  summer. 
Introduce  natural  enemies  into  ponds,  such  as  gold  fish,  silver 

fish,  and  minnows. 

2.  Remove  old  tin  cans,  pails,  bottles,  and  other  possible  con- 
tainers of  water. 

3.  Cover  rain  barrels  and  tanks  with  fine  wire  netting. 

4.  Screens  at  all  windows  and  doors. 

Extermination. — 1.  Bed  nets  at  night  (have  net  large  enough 
to  allow  free  circulation  of  air;  be  sure  no  mosquito  is  inside  the 
net,  and  net  is  free  from  holes  and  tears). 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  311 

2.  Mosquito  traps — home-made,,  same  as  for  flies. 

3.  Eepellent  oil :  (a)  Oil  of  citronella  (apply  to  screens  if  badly 
infested),     (b)  Repellent  mixture:  Oil  of  citronella,  1  oz. ;  spirit  of 
camphor,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  ce'.ar,  %  °z-     A  few  drops  of  this  mixture 
on  a  cloth  hung  on  the  bed  at  night  is  effective. 

4.  Smudges :  Anything  that  will  make  a  dense  smoke  will  drive 
away  mosquitoes.     Pyrcthrum  powder  made  into  paste  and  burned 
is  effective. 

5.  Fumigants:     Sulphur  is  burned  in  case  of  disease^causiiig 
mosquitoes. 


FIG.  164. — Clothes  moth — with  puparium  and  larva  below. 

The  latter  two  must  not  be  burned  where  people  can  inhale  the 
fumes  too  closely. 

Clothes  Moths. — Destructive  to  woolen  textiles,  fur,  feathers, 
and  carpets  or  upholstery.  The  destruction  is  done  by  the  larva 
or  worm  which  develops  from  the  moth  egg  (Fig.  164). 

Prevention. — Keep  moths  from  depositing  eggs. 

1.  Hang  textiles  in  sun  and  air,  and 

2.  Carefully  beat  and  brush  so  as  to  remove  any  eggs  that  may 
be  present,  and 

3.  Pack  tightly  in  clean  boxes,  bags  of  cotton,  linen  or  strong 
paper,  and  include 

4.  Repellents   such  as  tobacco,   pepper,   camphor,   naphthaline 
balls,  and  cedar  chips,  which  are  effective  in  keeping  moths  out,  as 
long  as  odor  is  strong;  then 

5.  Seal  edges  of  boxes  with  wrapping  paper. 

6.  Keep  closets  clean. 


312  HOUSEWIFERY 

7.  Or  use  cold  storage  method  (adopted  by  dealers  in  furs,  etc.). 
Temperature  is  so  low  as  to  produce  inactivity. 

Extermination. — If  the  moth  worm  has  developed,  the  house- 
keeper must  give  her  attention  to  the  closet  or  storage  place. 

1.  Take  clothing  to  sunlight  and  brush  thoroughly. 

2.  Wash  the  closet  with  strong  soapsuds. 

3.  Burn  a  sulphur  candle. 

4.  Spray  walls,  shelves,  and  boxes  with  oil  of  cedar,  gasoline,  or 
benzine.     (Avoid  fire.) 


FIG.  165. — The  bed-bug  from  above  and  below  and  egg. 

Bed  Bugs. — Possible  carriers  of  disease  (Fig.  165).  Found  in 
dusty,  undisturbed  places  first;  easily  carried  in  clothing. 

Prevention. — 1.  Inspection  of  beds  and  bedding,  especially 
seams  and  tuftings  of  mattresses. 

2.  Careful  inspection  of  all  baggage  and  clothing  coming  into 
house. 

Extermination. — 1.  Hot  water. 

2.  Benzine  or  kerosene  injected  into  all  crevices  of  beds  and 
walls. 

3.  Corrosive  sublimate. 

4.  Oil  of  turpentine. 

5.  Fumigants:  sulphur — to  be  burned — most  efficient  remedy, 
but  to  be  handled  with  great  care  (see  page  303). 

Roaches. — Cock  roaches,  croton  bugs,  water  bugs  (Fig.  166). 
More  abundant  in  pantries  and  kitchens,  near  garbage  pails,  sinks, 
and  warm  places  such  as  hot  water  boilers.  They  feed  on  dead  ani- 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  313 

mal  matter  and  food  of  all  kinds.    Wet  scrubbing  brushes,  refriger- 
ator drip  pans,  and  dish  cloths  seem  especially  to  draw  them. 

Prevention. — 1.  Keep  kitchen  and  pantry  clean  from  crumbs. 

2.  Cover  all  food. 

3.  Keep  sink  dry ;  no  wet  mops  or  dish  cloths. 

•i.  Place  alum  or  borax  in  water  pan  under  refrigerator. 
5.  Sprinkle  roach  powders  under  refrigerator. 
Extermination. — 1.  Dust:  Powdered  borax,  pyrethrum  powder, 
sodium  fluoride,  sulphur  flowers. 

2.  Poison  paste :  Spread  on  bits  of  cardboard  placed  in  runways. 


Fro.  166. — The  Oriental  roach,  Periplaneta  orientalis. — a,  the  male;  b,  the  female;  c,  egg-case. 

3.  Trapping. — Roaches  like  rancid  grease,  and  can  often  be 
caught  in  a  pan  well  lined  with  grease,  as  they  cannot  crawl  through 
it.  A  bread  pan  with  sides  about  three  inches  deep  makes  a  good 
trap.  To  kill  trapped  roaches,  plunge  trap  into  very  hot  water. 

Ants. — Especially  hard  to  fight  because  they  are  so  small  and 
usually  come  in  such  myriads. 

Prevention. — 1.  Keep  all  food  covered. 

2.  Place  legs  of  tables  and  refrigerators  in  cups  of  water  covered 
with  a  coating  of  oil. 

Extermination. — 1.  Find  the  ant-hill,  and  inject  kerosene  into  it 
and  close  tightly  with  cotton  soaked  in  kerosene. 

2.  Soak  sponges  in  sweetened  water;  after  ants  have  crawled 
into  it,  plunge  the  sponge  into  boiling  water. 

3.  Spread  borax  on  shelves. 


314 


HOUSEWIFERY 


4.  Poison.     Soak  sponges  in  syrup  poisoned  with  arsenate  of 
soda,  and  the  ants  will  carry  the  poison  to  larvae  in  nest.     (Use 
arsenate  with  great  care,  as  it  is  a  poison.) 

5.  Strong  soapsuds — harmless  and  very  effective. 

Carpet  Beetles  (Buffalo  Bugs). — Feed  upon  carpets  and 
woolens  and  silk.  Are  most  destructive  because  they  eat  so  many 
types  of  things  (Fig.  167). 

Prevention. — 1.  Eeplace  carpets  by  rugs. 

2.  Take  up  carpets  at  least  twice  a  year,  and  thoroughly  clean 
carpets  and  floors. 


FIG.  167.— The  carpet-beetle,  Anthrenus  scrophularics. — a,  larva ;  6,  larval  skin  split  to  expose 
the  pupa  within  it;  c,  pupa;  d,  beetle. 

Extermination. — 1.  Thorough  house  cleaning :  Thoroughly  clean 
carpet.  Spray  with  benzine.  Wash  floors  with  hot  water.  Clean 
out  cracks — pour  kerosene  or  benzine  into  cracks  and  under  base- 
boards. (Benzine  very  inflammable.)  Fill  cracks  with  plaster-of- 
Paris.  Lay  tarred  paper  under  carpets.  Every  little  while  take  up 
edges  of  carpet  and  look  for  insects. 

2.  Steam. — Place  damp  cloth  over  carpet;  iron  with  hot  iron. 
Steam  will  pass  through  carpet  and  will  kill  insects  directly  under 
the  ironed  part. 

3.  Poison. — Corrosive  sublimate  and  alcohol — 60  gr.  corrosive 
sublimate  dissolved  in  1  pint  of  alcohol.    Apply  to  edges  and  under- 
sides of  carpet;  will  destroy  larvae.      (Great  care  must  be  used 
because  corrosive  sublimate  is  a  violent  poison.) 

Fleas. — Parasites  and  carriers  of  disease.  Two  species  in  dwell- 
ing houses :  human,  and  cat  or  dog  flea  (Fig.  168) . 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS 


315 


Prevention. — 1.  Destroy  adult  flea;  the  eggs  are  like  small  black 
powder,  called  nits. 

2.  Keep  cats  and  dogs  clean  and  free  from  fleas.     Bathe  fre- 
quently in  solution  of  creolin.     For  dogs — 4  tablespoons  creoline 
to  1  quart  water.  For  cats — 2  tablespoons  creoline  to  1  quart  water. 

3.  Animals'  sleeping  rug  or  pillow  should  be  often  beaten  and 
hung  in  sun. 

Extermination. — 1.  Care  of  carpet,  rugs,  or  floors — (a)  Sweep 
carpets  and  take  up  often;  (6)  wash  floors  with  strong  soapsuds; 


FIG.  168.— The  jigger  flea:   a,  normal  female;  b,  distended  with  eggs;  c,  larva. 

(c)  fill  up  cracks  of  floors;  (d)  sprinkle  carpets  with  benzine  or 
gasoline;  naphthaline,  or  alum  (powdered  or  in  solution). 

2.  Repellents — (a)  Oil  of  pennyroyal;  (b)  boughs  and  chips  of 
pine;  (c)  naphthaline  crystals;  (d)  pyrethrum. 

The  oil  of  pennyroyal  can  be  applied  to  the  human  skin;  or  can 
be  used  in  the  household  by  rubbing  around  window  or  on  floor. 

Rats  and  Mice ;  Squirrels ;  Chipmunks. — All  are  very  destruc- 
tive of  food,  clothing  and  leather,  and  are  very  dirty. 

Prevention. — 1.  Close  all  holes  or  openings  by  which  they 
enter.  Tin  makes  a  good  cover. 

2.  Keep  all  food  covered. 

3.  Leave  no  crumbs  about. 


316 


HOUSEWIFERY 


Extermination. — 1.  Traps  set  near  possible  entrance.  Scald 
traps  before  setting  to  remove  suspicious  odors. 

2.  Poisons — various  preparations  on  the  market.  Cannot  be 
used  with  pet  animals  about. 


Fid.  169. — The  silver-fish,  Leplsma  domestica. 

3.  Cats  as  catchers. 


FIG.  170. — A      house      centij 
Scutigera  forceps. 


4.  Weasels — professional  vermin  exterminator  brings  his  own 
weasels. 

Silver  Fish  (fish  moth,  bristle  tail)  (Fig.  1G9). — Injurious  to 
bookbindings,  glazed  paper,  starched  clothing,  linen,  curtains,  stiff 
silks,  wallpaper  paste. 

Prevention. — 1.  Keep  the  place  dry  and  well  aired. 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  317 

Extermination. — 1.  Pyrethrum  powder  sprayed  on  book  shelves, 
in  drawers,  etc. 

2.  Sodium  fluoride  sprayed  wherever  pests  occur. 

3.  Arsenic   (deadly  poison).     Add  to  starch  paste.     Place  on 
small  pieces  of  cardboard  where  pests  occur. 

Centipedes. — Abundant   in   bathrooms,   moist   closets,   cellars, 
conservatories,  and  around  heating  pipes  and  registers  (Fig.  170). 

Prevention. — 1.  Constant  inspection  of  moist  places. 

2.  Keep  places  dry  and  aired. 

Extermination. — 1.  Destroy  centipedes  whenever  seen. 

2.  Apply  fresh  pyrethrum  powder. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 
1    What  safe  ways  can  be  suggested  for  ridding  a  bed  of  vermin  ? 

2.  How  can  you  clean  a  sugar  box  of  ants? 

3.  A  housewife  once  thought  she  had  a  cricket  and  hated  to  kill  it  because 

of  an  old-fashioned  superstition.  Later  she  found   she  had  been   har- 
boring a  household  pest.     What  was  it? 

4.  If  a  kitchen  is  infested  with  roaches  what  means  may  be  employed  to 

exterminate  ? 

REFERENCES 
BISHOPP,  F.  C.,  FLEAS  AS  PESTS  TO  MAN  AND  ANIMALS,  WITH  SUGGESTIONS 

FOB  THEIR  CONTROL.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  683. 
BISHOPP,  F.  C.,  FLY  TRAPS  AND  THEIR  OPERATION.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  734. 

HERRICK,  GLEN  W.,  HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  CONTROL.    Cor- 
nell University  Bulletin  No.  49. 
HOWARD,  L.  0.,  THE  CARPET  BEETLE,  OR  BUFFALO  MOTH.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  626. 
HOWARD,    L.   O.,    HOUSE   FLIES.      U.    S.    Dept.    of    Agriculture,    Farmers' 

Bulletins  Nos.  459  and  679. 
HOWARD,  L.  O.,  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS  AGAINST  HOUSEHOLD  PESTS.    U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  690. 
HOWARD,    L.   0.,   MOSQUITOES,    How    THEY   LIVE,    CARRY   DISEASE,   ETC. 

McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 
HOWARD,  L.  O.,  REMEDIES  AND  PREVENTIVES  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES.     U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  444. 
MACLEOD,  SARAH,  THE  HOUSEKEEPER'S  HANDBOOK  OF  CLEANING.     Harper 

&  Bros. 
MARLATT,  C.  L.,  THE  BEDBUG.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin 

No.  754. 
MARLATT,  C.  L.,  COCKROACHES.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin 

No.  658. 
MARLATT,  C.  L.,  HOUSE  ANTS,  KINDS  AND  METHODS  OF  CONTROL.     U.  S. 

Dept  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  740. 
MARLATT,    C.    L.,    THE   HOUSE    CENTIPEDE.     U.    S.    Dept.     of   Agriculture, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  627. 
MARLATT,  C.  L.,  THE  SILVER  FISH,  AN  INJURIOUS    HOUSEHOLD    INSECT. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  681. 
MARLATT,    C.    L.,    TRUE    CLOTHES    MOTHS.     U.    S.    Dept.    of   Agriculture, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  659. 
PARLOA,  MARIA,  HOME  ECONOMICS.     Century  Co. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 

HOUSEWIFERY,,  as  presented  in  this  book,  represents  technique 
of  housekeeping.  As  a  subject  of  study,  it  may  form  either  a 
course  by  itself  which  is  to  give  special  attention  to  the  practical 
processes  of  housekeeping  with  appropriate  laboratory  exercises ;  or, 
where  the  curriculum  has  not  yet  developed  so  that  housework  is 
taught  in  a  course  by  itself,  housewifery  may  be  made  a  part  of  the 
course  in  household  management;  or  together  with  other  manage- 
ment topics,  selected  lessons  in  housewifery  may  be  introduced  into 
other  courses  in  the  home  economics  curriculum,  as  in  cooking 
courses. 

If  provision  is  made  for  a  separate  housewifery  course,  it  should 
have  its  specially  prepared  teacher  and  its  special  equipment  and 
laboratory,  just  as  is  provided  for  any  other  subject  of  instruction. 
At  the  same  time  this  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  that  simple  lessons 
in  housewifery  may  be  given  by  teachers  of  the  home  economics 
courses,  and  indeed  by  regular  classroom  teachers  provided  they 
have  had  proper  training.  Moreover,  the  importance  of  the  subject 
is  such,  dealing  as  it  does  with  the  fundamental  sanitary  problems 
of  household  living,  that  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  taught  most 
widely  to  older  as  well  as  to  younger  students  everywhere. 

The  problems  to  be  met  both  by  the  teacher  of  housewifery  who 
gives,  a  special  course  in  this  subject,  and  by  teachers  of  other  sub- 
jects who  introduce  a  number  of  housewifery  lessons  into  other 
courses,  will  be  considered  in  this  chapter. 

Methods  of  Teaching. — Housewifery  is  a  subject  which  can  be 
presented  theoretically  by  lectures  or  talks,  but  since  it  concerns 
practical  processes  it  is  very  important  that  the  teaching  of  theory 
be  constantly  accompanied  by  practice  in  order  to  try  out  ideas, 
to  make  mental  impressions  more  vivid,  and  to  equip  the  learner  to 
do  successfully  the  particular  task  concerned.  A  textbook  in  the 
hands  of  students  will  help  present  theory  in  well-organized  form, 
though  of  course  there  must  be  oral  instruction  by  the  teacher  who 
describes  processes  and  leads  the  group  in  discussion;  a  textbook 
becomes  later  a  reference  book.  Students  will  usually  keep  note- 
318 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 


319 


books.  Illustrative  material  (Fig.  171)  and  excursions  to  places  of 
business,  to  homes  and  to  institutional  households,  will  help  make 
clear  the  problems  involved. 

Laboratory  Work. — Practical  work  must  be  provided,  whether 
it  be  in  the  student's  own  home,  in  and  about  the  school  building, 
or  in  a  special  housewifery  laboratory  suitably  equipped,  or  in 
a  practice  house  or  apartment.  The  special  housekeeping  laboratory 
ought  to  be  provided  in  all  higher  institutions,  and  even  in  high 


FIG.   171.— Storage  of  illustrative  material. 

schools  there  is  a  great  advantage  in  the  special  room  set  aside 
with  its  proper  equipment  and  teaching  materials.  For  one  thing 
it  gives  an  importance  in  the  minds  of  the  students  to  the  prosaic 
work  problems  of  the  home  to  find  them  the  subject  of  instruction 
appropriately  housed  in  a  housewifery  laboratory.  And  such  a  special 
room  makes  it  also  possible  to  do  better  teaching,  since  equipment 
and  teaching  material  of  all  kinds  can  be  gradually  collected  in  such 
a  room  where  it  is  at  hand  to  illustrate  points  arising  in  the  teaching. 
Housewifery  Laboratory. — A  room  30  x  30  or  thereabouts  will 
make  an  adequate  housewifery  laboratory  (Fig.  171).  The  equip- 
ment actually  required  for  a  beginning  may  be  very  simple — a  few 
tables,  a  sink  with  water  supply,  a  gas  stove  or  better  several  gas 


320 


HOUSEWIFERY 


burners,  and  storage  facilities  for  teaching  materials.  This  of 
course  is  an  inexpensive  furnishing  which  will  place  much  addi- 
tional labor  on  the  teacher,  but  it  does  make  the  work  possible  if 
there  is  only  a  small  amount  at  first  available  for  the  equipment 
of  a  housewifery  laboratory  (Fig.  172) .  With  such  a  meagre  equip- 
ment, the  illustrative  material  must  be  furnished  by  borrowing 


FIG.  172. — Laboratory  equipment. 

from  other  departments,  and  by  teacher  or  students  bringing  in 
special  problems  for  the  day,  and  the  class  may  have  to  be  satisfied 
with  such  help  as  is  furnished  by  demonstrations  given  by  the  teacher. 
Like  all  demonstration  work  it  has  only  a  small  part  of  the  value  of 
the  actual  work  done  by  the  students  themselves. 

The  supplying  of  pieces  of  silver  and  of  various  metals  to  be 
cleaned,  a  few  pieces  of  linen  that  might  be  used  for  teaching 
hemming  of  nappery,  or  cretonnes  to  be  made  up  into  various 
bags  and  holders  or  upholstered  into  pillows — this  and  similar 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  321 

material  might  easily  be  brought  in  by  students.  But  when  beds, 
refrigerators,  stoves,  etc.,  are  part  of  a  lesson,  it  will  be  seen  at 
once  that  it  would  be  more  practical  to  have  them  in  the  laboratory, 
if  possible;  at  any  rate  somewhere  in  the  school  where  a  class  can 
assemble  and  study  them.  Teachers  sometimes  take  their  classes 
to  their  own  apartments  or  homes  for  special  lessons,  but  this  is 
unsatisfactory,  because  of  the  time  lost  in  the  students'  going  and 
coming,  and  because  often  the  class  is  too  large  to  work  without 
confusion. 

As  soon  as  conditions  permit,  therefore,  the  requisites  for  in- 
struction in  this  subject  should  be  provided  as  adequately  as  for 
any  other  subject.  This  requires  a  good-sized  laboratory  room  with 
one  or  more  large  store-rooms,  for  there  is  a  large  amount  of  teach- 
ing material  which  can  wisely  be  used.  The  room  should  have 
work  table  space  for  30  students;  the  tables  should  be  moveable, 
with  soft  wood  tops,  so  that  they  will  not  be  injured  by  rough  work 
and  can  be  refinished  readily;  they  should  be  of  standing  height 
(34"-38"),  with  high  chairs  provided.  The  tables  may  well  be 
arranged  in  a  horse-shoe  form  with  the  teacher's  desk  raised  at 
the  opening  of  the  horse-shoe.  In  addition  to  running  water,  and 
gas  outlets  including  a  range,  there  should  be  storage  cupboards 
and  glass  display  cases  in  the  room,  and  ample  space  for  bringing 
in  from  the  store-room,  a  bed,  refrigerator,  furniture,  utensils  of 
all  kinds,  and  exhibits.  Ample  blackboard  space  should  be  provided 
and  also  cork  board  for  pinning  up  exhibit  material. 

The  store-rooms  should  have  shelving  and  cupboards,  and  con- 
siderable floor  space  for  storing  materials,  labor-saving  equipment, 
etc.,  when  not  in  use  in  the  laboratory.  One  or  two  rooms  12  x  15 
will  not  be  too  large  for  storage  space. 

Laboratory  Equipment. — To  equip  the  laboratory,  one  would 
have  to  set  aside  about  $500,  if  the  ideal  work-room  is  to  be  estab- 
lished, but,  given  a  room,  teaching  materials  can  if  necessary  be 
gradually  accumulated.  In  general  there  should  be  present  sam- 
ples of  the  materials,  tools,  working  equipment,  and  supplies,  and 
of  the  furnishings  which  enter  into  the  ordinary  .household.  The 
various  items  listed  in  the  chapters  of  this  book  so  far  as  they  can 
conveniently  be  brought  into  a  school  workroom  suggest  what  equip- 
ment the  laboratory  should  have.  If  one  has  to  equip  from  the 
first,  one  should  inquire  as  to  materials  which  can  be  had  on  loan  so 
21 


322 


HOUSEWIFERY 


as  to  make  one's  funds  reach  as  far  as  possible.  Gradually,  however, 
get  into  the  laboratory  the  things  used  regularly. 

Some  idea  of  desirable  equipment  may  be  had  from  the  following 
concrete  suggestions: 

Plumbing  fittings  as  trap,  faucet,  etc.;  charts  of  plumbing  and 
heating  systems;  sample  lighting  equipment;  working  equipment 
of  kitchen,  laundry,  and  cleaning  processes;  larger  labor-savers  as 
washing-machines,  dish-washers,  vacuums ;  supplies  of  all  kinds,  as 
soaps,  dustless  sweeper  materials;  samples  of  the  materials  with 
which  the  housewife  deals — wood  samples;  in  various  finishes,  types 
of  flooring,  etc.;  metals  of  all  kinds  in  forms  suitable  for  experi- 
mental cleaning ;  household  linens,  floor  coverings,  wallpapers,  hang- 
ings, curtain  and  curtain  fixtures,  etc. 

The  teacher  may  bring  out  both  the  art  and  economic  side  of 
furnishing  by  having  the  students  mount  their  illustrations  of 
furniture  and  their  samples  of  materials  so  as  to  represent  the  fur- 
nishings of  one  room,  which  they  present  with  an  estimate  of  the 
cost.  By  comparison  and  classroom  discussion,  students  are  led 
to  see  better  combinations  as  to  both  line  and  color.  At  all  times, 
comparative  cost  must  be  part  of  the  study,  and  at  no  time  should 
expensive  things  alone  be  considered.  The  type  of  student  controls 
the  desirable  range  of  costs  in  such  a  problem,  but  the  teacher  of 
housewifery  must  always  teach  economy. 

One  handicap  to  the  above  method  is  the  viewpoint  of  the  mer- 
chants. Many  catalogs  'are  'put  out  at  great  expense,  so  great  that 
the  merchants  feel  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  furnish  these 
expensive  catalogs  without  there  being  some  anticipated  purchase 
of  the  article.  The  author  has  found  that  many  firms  gladly  co- 
operate in  this  type  of  educational  work  if  they  are  consulted  and 
given  time  to  prepare  some  sheets  of  special  value  to  students,  rather 
than  have  them  use  or  cut  up  catalogs. 

Loans  from  Firms. — Teachers  may  have  help  through  the 
loaning  of  equipment  by  manufacturers  or  local  dealers.  This  is 
especially  important  with  expensive  equipment  such  as  vacuum 
cleaners  and  washing  machines.  It  is  a  disadvantage  to  own  too 
many  of  these,  because  the  laboratory  soon  becomes  a  museum  of 
machines  which  finally  become  too  old  to  serve  as  up-to-date  equip- 
ment. An  exhibit  of  large  labor-savers  is  valuable  for  compara- 
tive purposes.  Manufacturers  will  often  extend  the  courtesy  of 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  323 

a  visit  to  the  plant  to  the  class,  and  such  excursions  to  both  fac- 
tories and  stores  are  of  great  service.  Lantern  slides  will  often  be 
furnished  by  firms,  they  being  given  the  privilege  of  putting  their 
names  in  the  corner  of  the  slides. 

Helps  in  Classroom. — Catalog  and  advertising  material,  to- 
gether with  newspaper  articles  may  be  made  available  for  the  stu- 
dents through  the  use  of  folio  boxes ;  catalogs  may  also  be  filed  on 
edge  in  a  deep  drawer.  This  material  to  be  of  service  must  be 
well  indexed.  Folio  or  filing  boxes  may  be  obtained  from  any  book 
dealer.  A  catalog  of  larger  sized  index  cards  is  useful  for  infor- 
mation taken  from  catalogs  and  other  sources.  The  bulletin  board 
should  be  used  for  interesting  items.  A  shelf  of  reference  books 
should  be  provided  in  the  laboratory. 

Whether  or  not  a  text-book  is  used,  it  may  be  found  helpful 
to  outline  the  lesson  and  give  such  an  outline  on  a  typewritten  sheet 
preceding  a  lesson.  On  this  outline  may  also  be  added  a  set  of  prob- 
lems and  a  list  of  reference  readings;  this  sheet  helps  the  student 
to  prepare  her  lesson.  Any  recipes,  e.g.,  of  cleaning  solutions,  or 
directions  for  work,  should  be  given  to  each  student  on  mimeograph 
sheets,  cut  to  fit  the  notebook.  These  sheets  will  save  time  of  dic- 
tation by  the  teacher  in  class,  and  also  eliminate  mistakes  in  copying. 

Practice  Work,  Practice  Houses  (Figs.  173, 174).— The  labo- 
ratory method  is  extended  to  a  more  real  and  definite  working  out  of 
the  problem  by  the  use  of  practice  houses  or  practice  apartments. 
Practice  houses)  have  proved  to  be  an  advantage  for  different  types 
and  ages,  from  the  girls  of  grammar  school  to  those  of  college  age, 
and  even  in  teaching  housekeepers  in  extension  classes.  To  make 
the  practice  house  very  real  and  of  the  desired  help  to  the  individual, 
the  class  should  be  of  a  family  size,  otherwise  there  is  too  much 
division  of  labor,  as  well  as  too  small  a  share  of  responsibility. 
The  public  school  practice  house  lacks  a  large  part  of  the  value  that 
a  regular  practice  house  may  have,  because  students  do  not  make  it 
their  real  home,  being  there  only  through  school  hours.  Some  have 
suggested  that  in  time  eighth-grade  and  high  school  girls  will  be 
asked  as  part  of  their  practical  study  of  housekeeping  to  live  for  a 
week  or  more  in  a  model  house  or  apartment. 

In  a  practice  apartment  or  a  practice  house,  the  student  should 
ideally  be  given  the  individual  tasks  of  a  member  of  the  "  family  " 
living  in  the  house.  Her  work  should  finally  extend  through  all 


324 


HOUSEWIFERY 


branches  of  housekeeping  and  homemaking — mistress,  maid,  laun- 
dress, buyer,  guest  etc.  A  good  way  is  to  change  the  working 
schedule  once  a  week,  then  to  bring  in  a  new  group,  'because  this 
gives  time  to  perfect  methods  reasonably  and,  too,  the  home  schedule 
is  usually  operated  on  a  weekly  basis.  This  is  also  of  service  to  the 
one  who  has  charge  of  the  food  and  the  budget.  A  senior  student  or 


Fio.  173. — Practice  house,  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Oregon. 

an  assistant  teacher  in  the  department  may  act  as  a  leader  of  the 
group,  but  the  work  must  be  closely  supervised ;  a  good  standard  of 
work  gives  sufficient  basis  for  credits  for  this  practice  work.  The 
number  of  points  allowed  a  student  for  this  practical  work  varies 
with  different  standards  of  training,  but  when  properly  supervised 
it  should  be  counted  as  equivalent  to  laboratory  hours  within  the 
institution,  and  given  credit  accordingly. 

Model  housekeeping  centers  are  established  in  some  cities,  as 
a  basis  of  teaching  better  housekeeping  standards,  especially  to  the 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 


325 


foreign  women  who  live  in  the  community.  These  are  apartments 
furnished  economically  but  with  all  necessities  for  good  housekeep- 
ing and  homemaking;  often  each  item  is  marked  with  the  cost  for 
the  information  of  visitors.  Such  centers  are  also  used  by  the  public 
school  children,  who  come  for  certain  periods  a  week  to  have  work 
in  an  apartment  which  is  a  standard  for  the  kind  of  an  apartment  in 


FIG.  174. — Living-room  of  practice  house,  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Oregon. 

which  they  live.     The  center  is  usually  in  charge  of  a  special  teacher 
who  conducts  all  the  work  of  the  center. 

Practice  Work  in  Homes. — Some  teachers  of  housewifery  have 
encouraged  definite  work  being  done  by  students  in  their  own  or 
others'  homes,  credit  being  given  for  stated  hours  of  work.  The 
main  difficulty  has  been  to  find  some  way  to  supervise  and  check  up 
the  work  and  to  rate  students.  Such  work,  particularly  when  done 
for  compensation  in  the  homes  of  others,  may  prove  an  important 
step  toward  the  training  of  young  women  in  wage-earning  occu- 


326  HOUSEWIFERY 

pations  related  to  the  home.  The  disadvantage  in  having  the  stu- 
dent take  her  training  in  homes  of  others  results  from  lack  of 
standardized  housekeeping  methods.  Each  housewife  may  be  a 
good  teacher  and  a  good  housekeeper  but  the  methods  of  any  two 
will  vary  widely.  This  in  fact,  is  one  reason  that  housekeeping 
schools  have  made  such  slow  progress. 

School  Courses  in  Housewifery. — In  high  schools,  both  junior 
high  schools  and  regular  high  schools,  and  in  technical  and  voca- 
tional schools  for  girls,  a  definite  course  of  lessons  in  housewifery 
should  be  taught.  This  will  be  either  a  unit  course  in  the  home 
economics  department,  or  perhaps  a  half  unit  with  some  other  course. 

There  are  given  below  two  outlines  of  courses :  the  first  a  nine- 
lesson  course  given  in  the  Washington  Irving  High  School,  New 
York  City,  where  a  practice  apartment  is  available;  and  the  second 
a  more  detailed  outline  of  eight  lessons  which  may  be  used  in 
schools,  in  settlements  or  other  special  classes,  or  in  rural  extension 
work. 

LESSON  OUTLINES  NO.  I. 

Housekeeping  Lessons  Given  at  Washington  Irving  High  Rchool, 
New  York  City 

LESSON  I 

1.  Discussion  of  previous  work  under  other  subjects  related  to  the  home. 

2.  Habits,  their  value  and  formation 

3.  Practice  Apartment  shown  and  explained 

a.  Rooms  discussed — number  and  size 

b.  New  Law  for  Tenements — average  size  and  rent 

c.  Necessary  points  in  any  apartment 

4.  Home  work.     Each  girl  examines  her  cellar  and  the  door  leading  to 
the   roof. 

LESSON  II 

1.  Plumbing, — construction  and   care 

a.  Importance   of  good  plumbing 

b.  Open   plumbing 

c.  Traps — construction  and  use 

d.  Care  of  sink,  pipe,  and  tray.     Use  of  alkalies 

e.  Care   of  bathroom   fixtures.     Use   of   disinfectants 

2.  Practical  work — Opening  of  trap,  cleaning  of  sink,  tub,  basin  and  flush 

closet 


1.  Natural  wood 

2.  Stained  or  painted  floor 

3.  Oiled  and  waxed  floors 

4.  Linoleum  and  oilcloth 

5.  Matting 

G.  Carpets  and  rugs. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  327 

LESSON  III 
Care  of  Floors  and  Woodwork 


LESSON  IV 

Care  of   Closets    and    Windows 

1.  Kitchen  closets 

a.  Treatment    and    arrangement 

b.  Care  and  cleaning 

2.  Clothing  closets 

a.  Economical  use  of   space 

b.  Care 

3.  Windows  and  mirrors 

a.     Care  and  cleaning 

LESSON  V 

Cleaning  of  Metals 

1.  Purpose 

2.  Danger    of   cheap,    unknown    polishes 

3.  Making  of  simple,  inexpensive  ones  at  home 

4.  Method  of  cleaning  steel,  iron,  tin,  zinc,  copper,  brass,  gold,  silver,  and 

nickel 

LESSON  VI 

Daily  Care  of  Rooms 

1 .  Kitchen 

a.  Sweep    floor    with    hair    broom 

b.  Dust  if  necessary 

c.  Clean  sink 

d.  Clean    stove 

(1)  If  it  is  a  gas  range,  wipe  burners  and  top  of  stove  with  a 

damp  cloth.    Clean  the  pan  underneath  the  burners 

(2)  If    it   is   a   coal    range,    remove    ashes,    brush    hearth,    and 

wipe  stove.     Rub  with  oily  cloth  if  necessary 

e.  Wash  tables  and  shelves  if  necessary 

2.  Bathroom 

a.  Wipe  floor  if  necessary 

b.  Clean    inside    of    flush    closet    if    necessary.      Bathtub    and    wash 

basin  should  be  left  clean  by  each  person  who  uses  them 

3.  Other  rooms,  such  as  living  room  or  bedroom 

a.  Brush  rug  or  carpet  with  carpet  sweeper 

b.  Dust  bare  floor  with  dustless  mop  or  bag  on  the  broom 

c.  Dust  window  sills,   furniture  and   ornaments.      Do    not    wrinkle 

bureau  covers  or  table  covers  when  removing  them.     Empty  and 
dust  sweeper,  brush  dust  from  dustless  mop  and  wash  duster 


328  HOUSEWIFERY 

LESSON  VII 
Cleaning  a  Room 

1.  Difference  between   Daily   Care  and   Cleaning  of  a  room 

2.  Preparation  of  room 

a.  For   cleaning  with  a  vacuum  cleaner 

b.  For  cleaning  with  broom 

( 1 )  Furniture 

(2)  Hangings 

( 3 )  Pictures 

( 4 )  Ornaments 

(5)  Carpet  or  rugs 

3.  Cleaning.  Methods    as    dustless    as    possible — use    dustless    mop    and 

duster  and  dampened  paper  for  the  floor,  if  necessary 

LESSON  VIII 
Cleaning  and  Polishing  of  Furniture 

1.  Substances  to  be  avoided,  and  why 

2.  Substances  to  be  used,  and  why 

3.  Cleaning: 

a.  Water 

b.  Neutral  soap 

c.  Whiting 

d.  Oil 

4.  Polishing: 

a.  Polishes   to  be  avoided.     Reasons 

b.  Simple  home-made   polishes.     Advantages 

c.  Method  of  work 

d.  Care  of  oily  cloths 

LESSON  IX 
Furnishing  and  Care  of  the  Sleeping  Room 

1.  Furnishing: 

a.     All  furnishings  should  be  easy  to  clean  or  wash 

(1)  Floor    covering.      Bare   floor    with    a   rug    is    best.      Carpet 

is   undesirable 

(2)  All    hangings    and    covers    should    be    made    of    washable 

material 

(3)  Furniture  should  be  plain.  An  iron  bed  is  best 

2.  Care 

a.  Of  room 

(1)  Keep  free  from  dust 

(2)  Keep  well  ventilated 

(3)  Keep  neat 

b.  Of   bed 

(1)  Air  bedding  and  room  in  the  morning,   if  possible.     Open 

closet  door  while  airing  room 

(2)  Examine  bed  occasionally  to  keep  it  free  from  vermin 

(3)  Turn  mattress  often 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  329 

LESSON  OUTLINES  NO.  II 

For  Schools,   Settlement  and  Other  Special  Classes;  or  Rural 
Extension  Work 

Introduction    to    the    Course — An    Appeal    for    Scientific    Homemaking. 

Present-day    Methods — Results    Possible 
Establish  concept   of: 
A  house — a  building 

A  home — what  the  family  life  makes  it 

Housewifery — a  study  of  the  problems  daily  confronting  the  housewife 
Homemaker — the  one  upon  whom  the  success  or  failure  of  the  home 
primarily  depends 

LESSON  I 

Choosing  the  Home.     Analysis  of  the  House 
1.     Considerations  in  choosing  the  home 

a.  Surrounding   conditions 

( 1 )  Physical 

(a)  Character  of  buildings   in  vicinity 

(b)  The  water  supply 

(2)  Social 

(a)  Character  of  neighborhood 

(b)  Proximity   to  business  and   school 

b.  The  house  or  apartment  itself 

( 1 )  Condition  of  building 

(2)  Plumbing 

( 3 )  Ventilation 

(a)  what   it   is 

(b)  how  secured 

(c)  influence  on  health 

(4)  Sunlight 

( 5 )  Heating 

(6)  Lighting 

( 7 )  Arrangement  of  rooms 
2.     Analysis  of  the  House 

a.  Divisions   into 

1 I )  the  work  part 
the  rest  part 

the  pleasure  part 

(2)  the  communications  between  parts 

b.  The  law  that  parts  should  relate  as  well  as  connect 

LESSON  II 

The  Cleaning  Process 
In  the  cleaning  process,  we  consider: 
1.     The  cleaning  tool 

a.  What  constitutes  a  tool  to-day 

b.  How  to  choose  a  tool 

( 1 )     Analysis  of  tool  as  to 

(a)  need 

(b)  quality,  and  suitability  to  purpose 

(c)  cost 

(d)  cost  of  repair 

NOTE. — Demonstration  with   tools. 


330  HOUSEWIFERY 

2.     The   Cleaning  Material 

a.  Talk   over  cleaning   solutions   the  women   use 

b.  Make  solutions  to  be  used  in  the  class  work  * 

(1)  Soap  solution 

(2)  Javelle 

(3)  Washing  soda 

(4)  Oxalic   acid    solution 

(5)  Detergent 

LESSON  III 
The  Kitchen 

Correlate  the  analysis  of  the  house  with  the  principles  or  organiza- 
tion as  applied  in  the  remaining  lessons:  even  if  the  home  consists  of 
one  room  and  all  the  processes  and  divisions*  be  included  in  it,  the  analysis 
and  principle  remain  the  same;  therefore  these  processes  and  divisions  will 
be  taken  up  as  such,  the  class  to  make  application  to  individual  home 
conditions. 

1.  Analysis  of  work  performed   in   the  kitchen,  viz.:      The  preparing  of 

food,  the  cooking  of  food,  washing  dishes,  putting  away  dishes 

a.  As  determining 

( 1 )  The  essentials  in  the  structure  and  finish  of  thq  floor,  walls, 

and    ceiling 

( 2 )  Ventilation 

(3)  Light 

b.  With  regard  to  efficient  routing  of  work  t 

2.  Practical  work:     Measure  working  heights.     Show  a  room: 

a.  Inefficiently  arranged 

b.  Efficiently  arranged  without  extra  cost 

Problem  for  next  lesson:  To  bring  in  list  of,  or  have  in  mind,  the 
necessary  kitchen  equipment. 

LESSON  IV 
Permanent  Equipment 

1.  The  kitchen  cabinet! 

a.  Construction 

b.  Organization   and   contents  § 
•c.     Care 

2.  The  stove 

a.  Kinds 

(1)  Coal 

(2)  Gas 

(3)  Firelesa  cooker 

b.  Working  principles 

c.  Care 

*  The  teacher  to  make  these  solutions  as  a  demonstration, 
t  Emphasize   and   enlarge   upon   routing   of   all    housework   from   this 
text. 

$  Emphasize  correct  height  of  working  surfaces. 
§  Correlate  with  last  lesson. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  331 

3.     The  sink 

a.  Principles  of  construction 

b.  Kinds 

( 1 )  Porcelain 

(2)  Enamel  on  iron 

(3)  Iron,  etc. 

c.  Care 

Practical  work,  combined  with  teaching-.  Utensil  cleaning,  dish 
washing,  care  of  sink,  disposal  of  kitchen  waste. 

LESSON  V 

The  Kitchen.     Permanent  Equipment  (continued) 

1.  The  refrigerator 

a.  Principles  of  construction 

b.  Care 

2.  The  window  box 

a.  Principles  of  construction 

b.  Use 

c.  How  made 

3.  The  cupboard  for  dining  room  dishes 

a.  Organization 

b.  Equipment  of  dishes 

c.  Care 

Discussion  of  cheaper  devices  or  make-shifts. 

Practical  work:  Cleaning  refrigerator,  constructing  a  window  box 
or  refrigerator,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year. 

LESSON  VI 

The  Laundry 

1.  Analysis  of  its  use  as  determining 

a.  Essentials  in  structure  and  finish  of  floor,  walls,  and  ceiling 

b.  Light 

c.  Heat 

d.  Ventilation 

2.  The  equipment  * 

a.  Tubs 

b.  Ironing  board 

c.  Equipment  for  making  starch 

d.  Table 

Practical  work,  combined  with  teaching:  Stain  removing,  empha- 
sizing danger  and  necessity  for  care,  in  using  stain-removing  materials: 
lesson  in  laundering;  care  and  cleaning  of  laundry. 

NOTE. — As  laundry  work  is  only  a  small  part  in  the  whole  scheme 
of  the  course,  let  the  practical  work  be  along  the  line  of  bleaching,  remov- 
ing stains,  making  starch,  sponging  and  pressing. 

*  Emphasize  correct  height  of  working  surfaces. 


332 


HOUSEWIFERY 


LESSON  VII. 

The  Dining  Room.     The  Living  Room. 

1.  The  Dining  Room 

a.     Analysis  of  its  use  as  determining 

( 1 )  The  essentials   in   structure  and  finish  of  floor,   walls,  and 

ceiling 

(2)  Light 

(3)  Heat 

(4)  Ventilation 

(5)  The  essential   characteristics  of  the  furnishings 

(a)  Furniture 

(b)  Floor  coverings 

(c)  Curtains 

(d)  Pictures  and  ornaments 

2.  The  Living  Room* 

In  connection  with  living  and  dining  rooms,   discuss 

3.  The  cleaning  closet 

a.  Need  of,  whether  it  be  a  real  closet  or  space  in  the  corner 

b.  Equipment 

c.  Organization 

Practical  work,  combined  with  teaching:  Cleaning  the  living  room 
and  the  dining  room;  renewal  and  renovation  of  furniture,  floors,  walls, 
and  ceiling,  emphasizing  danger  and  necessity  for  care,  in  handling  ma- 
terials. Rug  cleaning. 

NOTE. — This  practical  lesson  should  teach  correct  methods  of  scrub- 
bing, sweeping,  dusting,  disposal  of  dust,  window  cleaning,  etc. 


LESSON  VIII. 
The  Bedroom.     Vermin.     The  Bathroom. 


The  Bedroom, 
a.     Analysis  of  its  use  as  determining 


(1) 


The  essentials 

ceiling 
Light 
Heatt 
Ventilation 
Furnishings 
The  bed 
( 1 )      Parts 

(a)      Bedstead 
Spring 
Mattress 
Pillows 


in    structure   and   finish   of   floor,   walls   and 


(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 


(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 


Covering 

(2)  How  made 

(3)  Cleaning  and  sanitation 


*  Emphasize  importance  of  "  homey  "  quality  in  living  room.  Show 
that  the  laws  of  good  taste  are  the  same  for  elaborate  and  for  simple 
interiors. 

t  Try  to  offer  some  solution  for  the  heatless  bedroom. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  333 

2.  Vermin 

a.  Habits 

b.  Kinds 

c.  Prevention 

d.  Eradication 

3.  The  linen  closet 

a.  Need  of,  whether  it  be  a  real  closet  or  a  space  set  aside  for  it 

b.  Organization 

c.  Equipment 

4.  The  bathroom, 

a.  Analysis  of  its  use  as  determining 

( 1 )  The   essentials   in   structure  and   finish   of   floor,   walls  and 

ceiling 

(2)  Light 

(3)  Heat 

(4)  Ventilation 

b.  Equipment 

(1)      How  to  tell  bad  from  good 

c.  Plumbing 

(1)  Water  supply 
(a)      Filtration 

( 2 )  Se\vage 

(a)  Principles  of  drainage 

(b)  Traps,  safe  and  unsafe 

NOTE. — Emphasize  importance  of  using  bathtub  for  bathing,  and 
importance  of  extreme  cleanliness  if  laundry  tubs  are  used  for  bathing. 
This  lesson  should  not  only  teach  sanitation  and  hygiene,  but  convince 
the  class  of  their  vital  connection  with  health.  If  this  group  is  to  have 
a  course  in  laundry  work,  omit  Lesson  VI,  use  VII  as  VI;  and  divide,  this 
lesson  into  two  lessons  for  VII  and  VIII. 

Reviews. — It  is  important  by  constant  reviewing  to  get  a  broad 
survey,  and  to  bring  together  general  explanations  and  procedures. 
The  review  may  be  in  terms  of  principles;  for  example,  to  explain 
the  applications  of  bacteriology  in  securing  sanitary  standards  of 
housekeeping,  or  to  justify  the  various  cleaning  processes  on  this 
basis ;  to  explain  the  management  of  a  furnace,  fireless  cooker,  etc., 
in  terms  of  the  physical  principles  ,of  heat.  Reviews  may  also  be  of  a 
practical  nature,  and  concern  the  technique  of  the  household.  This 
is  particularly  important  so  that  the  person  trained  in  housewifery 
may  become  a  capable  manager  and  wise  economizer  of  time,  labor, 
money,  and  materials.  Such  reviews  should  be  given  not  only  at 
the  end  of  a  course,  in  order  to  test  knowledge,  but  as  brief  exercises 
in  connection  with  regular  class  meetings  to  enliven  interest  and 
to  give  that  practical  knowledge  and  skill  which  make  the  house- 
wife ready  to  meet  any  emergency  in  her  domain,,  and  also  help 
her  serve  as  a  real  economizer  for  the  nation. 


334  HOUSEWIFERY 

As  a  sample  review  project,  there  are  listed  below  typical  "  econ- 
omies and  short  cuts."  Such  a  list  may  be  used  as  a  check  on  per- 
sonal practices :  how  many  of  these  do  I  practice  ?  How  many  could 
I  adopt  ?  Let  the  student,  housewife,  or  reader  extend  the  list  to  a 
dozen  practical  points  under  each  heading. 
Housewifery  as  a  Business  : 

Have  a  plan  for  housework — saves  time  and  keeps  order. 

Make  a  budget  of  expenditures — helps  to  save  income. 

Study  your  house  plan — may  suggest  improvements. 
Plumbing  : 

Keep  small  strainer  in  sink — will  catch  small  particles  of  food 
which  may  block  the  drain. 

Keep  washers  on  faucets — saves  water  bills. 

Pipe  running  water  wherever  used — saves  steps. 
Heating  and  Lighting: 

Put  covers  on  saucepans — saves  heat  and  hence  fire. 

Give  care  to  dampers  of  stove — saves  stove  and  fuel. 

Put  mantles  on  lights — give  more  light,  save  fuel,  hence  cost 

less  money. 
Equipment,  and  Labor  Saving  Appliances: 

Use  paper  on  table  in  cleaning  vegetables — saves  scrubbing  table. 

Use  paper  to  line  garbage  can — makes  cleaning  easy  and  less 
distasteful. 

Place  pans  and  utensils  near  stove,  sink,  or  table,  where  they 
are  to  be  used — saves  steps,  work,  time. 

Get  a  power  washing  machine — do  other  work  while  it  works. 

Eaise   the  table,   ironing  board,  washtub — saves  the  worker's 
back. 

Use  electric  or  gas  iron — saves  time  and  work  for  the  ironer. 
Supplies: 

Save  scraps  of  soap — use  for  wash  boiler  or  machine. 

Save  and  clarify  fat — it  cooks  food,  and  makes  soap. 

Use  blue  that  dissolves — saves  money  and  will  not  streak  on 

clothing. 
Furnishings : 

Choose  small  figures — saves  material  in  matching,  hence  money. 

Money  spent  in  fast  colors  good  economy — saves  time  and  work 
of  making  new. 

Keep  leather  cool,  aired,  and  oiled — saves  it  from  cracking. 
Cleaning  and  Care : 

Put  dust  sheets  over  furniture  when  sweeping — saves  work. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  335 

Use  moistened  paper  to  take  up  dust — saves  worker. 

Scrape,  stack  dishes,  and  wash  in  regular  order— saves  time 

in  washing,  wiping,  and  putting  away. 
Cleaning  and  Renovation: 

Mend  clothes  before  washing — a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 

Put  clothes  to  soak — makes  washing  easy,  saves  clothes. 

Try  cold  water  first  on  stains — removes  many  and  saves  cloth- 
ing and  work. 

Use  kerosene  to  remove  discolorations  on  porcelain — will  save 

scratching. 
Disinfectants  and  Fumigants: 

Put  cheap  wallpaper  on  children's  room — may  often  need  to 
be  taken  off  after  children's  diseases. 

Use  soap  and  water  freely — kills  germs  and  saves  doctors'  bills. 

The  College  Course  in  Housewifery. — A  college  teacher  of 
housewifery  has  the  interesting  task  of  teaching  a  practical  subject 
and  placing  it  upon  a  scientific  basis.  Obviously  there  is  need  of 
making  the  instruction  entirely  sound  as  regards  scientific  facts, 
and  the  college  teacher  will  need  to  draw  upon  the  resources  of  her 
own  scientific  training  and  also  have  close  working  cooperation  with 
the  scientific  departments.  At  the  same  time,  the  housewifery  course 
is  not  intended  to  be  a  course  in  applied  science  but  a  course  in 
technique  or  the  various  practical  processes  which  are  carried  on  in 
the  home.  If  the  practical  note  is  not  dominant,  the  instruction 
will  fail  as  did  to  a  certain  extent  agricultural  education  for  so  long 
a  time  through  its  efforts  to  be  "  scientific." 

How  may  the  college  instructor  best  use  this  text?  She  may 
either  follow  it  rather  closely  as  an  outline  of  subject  matter,  break- 
ing up  the  chapters  so  as  to  form  the  appropriate  number  of  units ; 
or  on  the  other  hand,  she  may  wish  to  follow  a  different  sequence 
of  topics,  suggestions  of  which  may  be  drawn  from  the  two  courses 
outlined  in  detail  in  this  chapter.  In  such  a  sequence  an  important 
element  may  be  a  discussion  in  turn  of  the  various  rooms  of  the  house 
from  cellar  to  attic,  under  each  room  bringing  in  the  problems  of 
equipment,  supplies,  storage,  and  cleaning  appropriate  to  it.  What- 
ever be  the  sequence  of  topics,  this  text  is  intended  to  be  an  outline 
of  subject  matter  which  will  be  serviceable  in  the  hands  of  the  indi- 
vidual student.  The  text  is,  however,  only  the  verbal  aspect  of  the 
instruction,  a  very  important  part  of  which  must  be  acquaintance 
with,  and  skill  in,  the  actual  processes  of  housekeeping  to  be  secured 
through  laboratory  and  other  practice. 


336  HOUSEWIFERY 

Laboratory  exercises  in  college  teaching  while  primarily 
arranged  to  illustrate  different  household  processes  may  well  be 
chosen  because  of  their  relation  to  the  various  fields  of  scientific 
study  with  which  the  students  are  familiar.  For  example,  tests  of 
various  household  supplies,  such  as  metal  polishes,  may  be  under- 
taken by  the  student  and  carried  out  in  terms  of  chemical  science. 
Concrete  items  of  household  equipment  such  as  the  dish  washer, 
vacuum  cleaner,  washing  machine,  may  be  examined  and  tested  in 
terms  of  physical  principles  as  well  as  used  practically  to  acquire 
a  desirable  technique.  Sanitary  problems  such  as  the  care  of  dish 
cloths,  the  washing  and  drying  of  dishes,  the  removal  of  dust,  may 
be  tested  by  the  methods  of  bacteriology.  Studies  economic  in 
nature  may  be  made  of  the  work  problem ;  household  equipment,  de- 
preciation and  upkeep.  Social  studies  may  be  made,  for  example,  of 
the  household  employee,  or  the  housewife  as  a  worker.  Also,  archi- 
tectural studies  of  house  plans,  particularly  of  the  service  portion  of 
the  house,  will  be  appropriate.  These  suggestions  are  given  to 
indicate  the  fact  that  the  subject  matter  of  housewifery  really  in- 
volves the  problems  that  lie  in  a  dozen  sciences,  so  that  it  merits  an 
important  and  dignified  place  in  the  college  curriculum. 

The  class  period  in  housewifery  for  college  instruction  may  well 
be  a  three-hour  period,  providing  time  both  for  instruction  and 
laboratory  practice,  or  a  separate  lecture  period  may  be  provided 
with  a  two-hour  laboratory  period  at  another  time.  The  instruction 
may  be  made  interesting  by  relating  it  very  closely  to  the  real  life 
of  the  home  and  the  community.  The  class  hour  may  well  begin 
by  five-minute  reports  from  students  on  assigned  topics,  such  as 
housewifery  articles  in  the  current  newspapers,  magazines  and 
other  literature,  observations  on  household  practice  in  homes  visited 
during  the  vacation;  suggestions  from  manufacturers'  demonstra- 
tions, and  visits  to  stores  and  institutions.  Student  participation 
in  developing  the  subject  matter  in  a  practical  field  like  this  is 
directly  effective  in  making  them  interested  to  apply  the  subject 
matter  presented  by  the  instructor.  Following  such  brief  reports, 
the  instructor  presents  the  topic  for  the  period  on  which  the  students 
have  already  examined  reference  material ;  discussion  follows  to  clear 
up  points  in  theory  before  the  practical  work  begins. 

Half  to  two-thirds  of  the  three-hour  period  may  then  be  devoted 
to  practice  work.  The  general  topic  is  assigned  for  the  consideration 
of  the  class — for  example,  the  cleaning  of  metals.  Then  the  students 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  337 

are  organized  into  working  groups  and  to  each  a  special  topic,  for 
example,  brass,  silver,  or  nickel  is  assigned.  The  students  test 
various  reagents  and  tools  for  the  problem  in  hand  and  make  notes 
on  results.  Each  group  is  organized  with  a  student  leader  who  is 
responsible  for  progress  and  results,  and  this  is  in  itself  a  training 
of  value.  At  the  close,  of  the  hour  the  students  clean  up  the  room 
and  put  away  materials  and  supplies,  which  is  a  valuable  house- 
keeping lesson. 

The  part-time  service  of  a  maid  is  necessary  for  such  a  laboratory, 
with  duties  of  caring  for  materials,  getting  materials  out  for  labora- 
tory use  before  the  class  hour  begins,  emergency  cleaning,  caring 
for  bulletin  boards,  etc.  The  instruction  to  be  successful  should 
have  a  wealth  of  illustrative  material  as  well  as  other  adequate 
provision  of  materials,  tools,  and  supplies,  and  their  organization  and 
care  is  in  itself  a  piece  of  work  requiring  part  of  a  worker's  time.  A 
laboratory  fee  may  well  be  charged  for  the  work ;  $2  seems  sufficient 
for  a  half-year  course. 

In  the  college  curriculum,  housewifery  will  probably  be  closely 
related  to  the  household  management  courses  as  explained  below. 

Demonstration  Teaching. — For  the  teacher  who  is  working 
with  the  college  student  or  with  the  housekeeper,  much  may  be  done 
by  demonstration  lectures  in  which  one  carries  through  a  process, 
or  shows  a  tool  or  piece  of  equipment  and  illustrates  its  use.  Such 
drawings  as  those  shown  to  illustrate  height  of  working  surfaces 
and  posture  during  work?  may  be  easily  drawn  by  the  teacher  ( Fig. 
175,  a,  bj  c,  d,  &,  /).  Demonstrations  may  be  given  in  the  school 
by  the  teacher,  by  the  lecturer  in  extension  work,  and  by 
"demonstrators"  employed  in  the  educational  departments  of 
manufacturing  companies,  including  gas  and  electric  companies  in- 
terested in  introducing  their  products.  With  this  type  of  work, 
moving  pictures  begin  to  play  an  important  part,  and  the  teacher  of 
housewifery  will  find  that  it  is  possible  to  rent  reels  on  different  sub- 
jects, showing  both  the  mechanical  methods  of  equipment  and  de- 
vices, and  the  efficiency  aspects  of  housekeeping.  This  is  a  new 
field  that  we  are  just  entering,  for  which  the  possibilities  seem 
without  limit.  Much  has  been  made  of  demonstration  lecture 
methods  in  teaching  foods  and  cooking  to  adult  audiences,  and 
housewifery  is  a  subject  in  which  demonstrations  are  equally 
applicable. 

With  the  emphasis  now  on  the  teaching  of  vocational  home- 


338 


HOUSEWIFERY 


(at 


(CJ 


Fio.  175. — a,  table  too  low.  Note  worker's  back.  6,  table  height  good.  No  strain 
anywhere,  c,  ironing  board  height  good;  is  lower  to  allow  for^pressure  with  iron,  d,  sink, 
position  good,  e,  correct  position  at  washtub;  /,  incorrect  position  at  washtub. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  339 

making  in  many  states,  a  large  problem  will  be  the  teaching  of 
actual  housekeepers,  and  more  consideration  will  be  given  to  demon- 
stration teaching.  In  rural  communities,  a  private  kitchen  in  one 
home  when  equipped  with  running  water  or  with  new  devices,  may 
be  used  as  a  "demonstration  "  for  the  housewives  in  that  section. 
Concrete  working  "  demonstrations  "  of  this  kind  have  been  used  in 
rural  extension  teaching  both  of  home  economics  and  of  agriculture 
in  many  states.  The  home  or  farm  thus  "  demonstrates  "  some  con- 
crete items  of  good  housekeeping  or  good  farming  to  the  neighbors. 

Housewifery  Topics  in  a  Cooking  Course. — The  following 
housewifery  topics  among  many  others  may  be  readily  brought  into 
a  cookery  course :  dish-washing,  laundry  equipment,  laundering 
process  (towels),  stain  removal,  care  of  range,  silver  polishing,  care 
of  woods,  metals,  etc.,  cleaning  a  room,  care  of  sink,  economy  of  fuel, 
care  of  refrigerator,  and  kitchen  equipment.  Some  of  these  topics 
may  be  used  as  separate  lessons  in  the  foods  course;  or  they  may 
be  brought  in  incidentally  in  a  cooking  lesson.  Teachers  of  cookery 
will  find  it  helpful  to  consider  the  topics  presented  in  this  book  from 
the  point  of  view  of  adapting  parts  of  them  to  their  courses.  The 
book  may  also  be  assigned  their  students  as  reference  reading  on 
many  problems  related  to  food  preparation. 

Special  Classes  in  Housewifery. — Teachers  will  find  it  pos- 
sible to  organize  special  classes  in  housewifery  for  housekeepers, 
and  for  household  employees,  who  may  come  at  hours  when  labora- 
tories are  not  otherwise  used.  Classes  for  wage-earning  young 
women  will  be  popular  in  the  evening,  especially  if  a  model  house 
or  an  apartment  is  available,  so  that  the  teaching  is  real  and  there 
is  opportunity  for  home-like  gatherings.  In  such  classes,  a  small 
unit  of  four  to  eight  lessons  on  definite  practical  topics  is  desirable. 
(See!  Lesson  Outlines,  I  and  II,  pages  326,  329.) 

Housewifery  and  Household  Management. — Instruction  in 
household  management,  whether  in  high  schools  or  in  higher  insti- 
tutions, presents  the  theory  of  organizing  and  administering  the 
household.  The  problems  of  housework,  or  the  technique  of  hoase- 
keeping  which  forms  the  subject  matter  of  housewifery,  are  evidently 
closely  related  to  household  management.  Accordingly,  many 
courses  in  household  management  already  provide  laboratory  and 
other  practice  work  in  what  is  really  housewifery,  and  to  such 
teachers  this  book  may  prove  useful  as  a  text. 

Advanced  Study  of  Housewifery. — The  problems  of  house- 


340  HOUSEWIFERY 

wifery  are  worthy  of  advanced  study  and  research,  and  in  higher 
institutions  the  instructor  will  do  well  to  secure  for  such  studies  the 
cooperation  of  such  scientific  departments  as  chemistry,  physics, 
and  bacteriology.  The  problems  can  often  be  guided  cooperatively, 
the  housewifery  teacher  checking  up  the  practical  aspects  of  a 
problem  such  for  example  as  dish-washing  methods,  and  the  scientific 
department  conducting  as  its  part,  the  study  of  the  mechanism 
of  machines.  In  such  institutions,  the  housewifery  work  merits  an 
advanced  research  laboratory  of  its  own  for  advanced  students. 

The  Teacher  of  Housewifery. — The  teacher  of  this  subject 
should,  if  possible,  be  trained  in  chemistry,  physics,  and 'bacteriology 
in  order  to  understand  the  background  of  the  subject.  But,  even 
more,  she  needs  to  be  an  experienced  housekeeper.  Those  preparing 
to  teach  it  should  do  the  actual  work  of  a  household  for  a  period 
of  several  months,  meeting  responsibilities  of  the  tasks,  money, 
time,  materials,  equipment,  etc.,  personally.  So  only  can  they 
successfully  adjust  theory  and  practice  in  their  own  minds  and 
help  students  to  do  the  same. 

The  teacher  is  to  set  standards,  but  because  students  represent 
so  many  types  of  homes,  she  must  be  prepared  to  teach  ways  and 
means  of  housework  as  carried  out  under  varying  conditions.  She 
must  be  able  to  present  standards  as  ideals,  rather  than  practices 
which  every  one  must  adopt.  She  must  not  only  present  her  ideal 
and  hold  to  it,  but  must  at  the  same  time  readjust  the  standards 
of  the  students  and  carry  them  as  far  forward  as  is  practicable. 

It  is  a  poor  policy  to  over-train  by  presenting  a'  standard  that  is 
economically  impossible  for1  certain  students.  For  example,  a  good 
duster  is  any  cloth  that  is  non-scratching,  soft,  and  non-linting; 
but  it  is  better  for  the  students  to  suggest  types  of  material  that 
might  be  of  service  in  the  homes,  even  if  -worn-out  clothing  is  to  be 
used  as  a  duster,  rather  than  for  the  teacher  to  present  one  or  two 
types  of  purchased  dusters  which  she  suggests  because  used  in  her 
own  training  school.  The '  teacher  must  know  and  teach  economy. 
For  example,  many  points  regarding  renovation  must  be  taught,  so 
that  the  student  will  be  able  to  help '  reduce  family  expenditures. 
The  teacher  must  not  only  know  facts  from  bocks,  but  should  have 
had  the  greatest  experience  possible,  that  experience  which  helps 
her  to  meet  an  emergency  and  readjust  herself  and  her  work  to 
actual  conditions. 


INDEX 


Acetylene  as  a  fuel,  55 

danger  from,  57 

lights,  81 
Acids,  135 

Advanced  study  in  housewifery,  339 
Agate  utensils,  96 

to  clean,  261 

Air  pressure  tank  system,  29 
Alcohol  as  disinfectant,  300 

as  fuel,  55 

for  cleaning,  249,  250 
Alkalies  in  soap,  136 
Alternating   electric   current,   59 
Aluminum  cleaning  pan  for  silver,  97 

to  clean,  261 

utensils,  94 
Ammonia,   135 

as  a  germicide,  299 

in  soap,  136 
Antiseptics,  298 
Ants,  313 

Arsenic  for  pests,  308 
A&h  chutes,  74 
Axminster  carpeting,  161 

Basement  storage,  205 

Baskets  and  hampers,  110 

Bath  brick,  135 

Bathroom,   equipment,  closets,  226 

Bath  tubs,  50 

to  clean,  257 
Bed  bugs,  312 
Beds,  186 

box  springs,  188 

care  of,  250 

cleaning  of,  250 

cost,  189 

disinfecting,  304 

for  the  sick,  254 

frame,  to  clean,  250 

relative  costs  of,  189 

removing  pests,  312 

sheets,  193 

sizes  of,  189,  196 

spreads,  193 

springs,  193 

to  make,  251 

to  prepare  bed  for  night,  257 


Bedsteads,  186 

to  clean,  250 
Beeswax,  130 
Benzine,   131,  308 

Bichloride   of   mercury    as    a   disin- 
fectant, 301 

Binding  of  blankets,  196 
Blankets,  193,  254 
Bleaching  cotton  and  linens,  280 

wools  and  silks,  281 
Bleach  wood,  291 
Blended  starch,  140 
Bluing,  141 

clothes,  278 
Boiling  clothes,  278 
Borax,  136 

as  a  disinfectant,  299 

as  a  starch  substitute,  140 

in  soap,  136 

Boxes  as  filing  cases,  237 
Box  springs,  188 
Bran  as  a  soap,  147 

as  a  starch  substitute,  141 
Brass,  lacquered,  295 

mountings,  295 

to  clean,   261 

Bread  and  cake  mixer,  98 
Britannia  ware,  to  clean,  262 
Brooms,  closets,   119,   221 
Brushes,   119,  259 
Brussels  carpet,  160 
Bucket  pumps,  26 
Burners,  58,  61,  74 

of  stoves,  to  clean,  269 
Business  desk,  238 
Buying,  general  rules,  129 

Cabinet,  kitchen,  92 

Cake  mixers,  98 

Calcimine  walls,  245 

Candle,  paraffin,  80 

Canned  heat  and  light,  55 

Canning  outfit,  128 

Canning  and  preserving  containers, 

217 
Carbolic  acid  solution,  disinfectant, 

301 
for  pests,  308 

341 


342 


INDEX 


Carbon  filaments  in   electric  lights, 

82 

Card  catalogues,  237 
Care  of  beds,  250 

floor  covering,  246 

porcelain,   257 

refrigerator,  267 

rooms,  241 

shoes,   288 
Carpet  beetle,  314 
Carpet  sweepers,  122 
Carpeting,  brussels,  160 

chenille,  161 

hemp  and  grass,  161 

ingrain,   160 
Carpets  and  rugs,   158 

to  clean,  147 
Cast  iron  utensils,  93 
to  clean,  261 
Caves    or    dug-outs    for    food,    211, 

216 
Cellar,  ventilation  of,  297 

stairs,  4 

storage,  205 
Centipedes,  317 
Cereals  and  food  containers,  216 

to  store,  234 
Cesspools,  37 
Chamois,  to  clean,  288 
Chain  bucket  pumps,  26 
Charcoal,  54 
Chart,  for  service,  16 
Cheesecloth,  125 
Chenille,  carpet,  161 
China,  198 

service  for  six,  201 

to  wash,  265 
Class  period,  336 
Cleaners  and  polishers,  130 
Cleaning  and  care  of  rooms,  240 

cloths,   125 

equipment,    118 

tools,  118 

stores,  267 

refrigerator,  269 
Cleaning  and  renovation,  273 

bathroom   furnishings,   257 

of  fabrics,  273 

of  furniture,  132 

of  metals,   260 

of  room,  241 
Clinkers,  to  remove,  74 
Closing  runways  of  pests,   307 


Closets  for  bathroom,  226 

brooms  and  cleaners,  221 

clothes,  227 

kitchen,  209 

laundry,  208 

linen,  222 

medicine,  223 

pantry,  209 

preserves,  206 

shoes,  228 

tools,  227 
Clothes  chute,  207 
Clothes-pin  bag,  111 
Clothes,  washing,   278 
Clothing  storage  closet,  230 
Coal,  53 

storage,  206 
Coal-bin,  206 

dust,  54 
Coke,  54 

College  course  in  housewifery,  335 
Color  tints,   140 
Colored  goods,  to  wash,  280 
Coloring  matter  in  soap,  137 
Combs,  to  clean,  259 
Comfortables,  to  clean,  282 

to  make,   196 
Commercial  storage,  204 
Comparative  value  of  rugs,  162 
Conservation  of  heat,  74 
Containers,  earthern,  217 

food,  216 

garbage,  218 

glass,   217 

preserving  and  canning,  217 

soiled   clothes,   110 

tin,  217 

Cook  stoves,  61 
coal,  62 
electric,   63 
gas,   62 
kerosene,  63 
Copper,  to  clean,  261 
Corduroy,  to  clean,  283 
Cork  for  knives,  98 
Cornstarch,   140 
Cost  of  rugs,  162 
Cotton  mattresses,  191 
Cotton,  to  bleach,  280 
Counterpanes,  193,  254 
Covering  of  heating  pipes,  76 
Creoline,   as   a  disinfectant,   302 
Cresol,  as  a  disinfectant,  302 


INDEX 


343 


Cretonnes,   176 
Crockery  containers,  94 
Curtains,  169 

Dampers,  conservation,  74 

of  furnaces,  73,  76 

of  stoves,   73,  76 
Danger  from  acetylene,  59 

gas,  59 

gasoline,  59 

kerosene,  59 

Demonstration  teaching,  337 
Denim,  176 
Detergent,  274 

Dextrine,  as  a  starch  substitute,  141 
Direct  electric  current,  59 
Dish  cloths,  184 
paper,  98 
to  clean,  265 

Dishes  for  the  refrigerator,  205 
Dish  mops,  98 

towels,    183 
Dishwashing,  264 

machine,  100 

Dishwater,  disposal  of,  31 
Disinfectants    and    fumigants,    297, 
298 

alcohol,  300 

bichloride,    301 

carbolic  acid,  301 

creoline,  302 

cresol,  302 

formalin,    301 

lysol,  302 

hydrogen  peroxide,  300 

table  of,  302 

tincture  of  iodine,  301 

tricresol,  302 

Division  of  space  in  the  home,   1 
Dolly  clothes  washing  machine,  107 
Domet  flannel,  125 
Drain  boards,  45 

outlet,  45 
Drains  of  sinks,  45 
Draperies    and    curtains,    material, 
165 

relative  value  of,  169 
Dry  cleaning,  283 
Dryers,  111 
Drying  clothes,  279 
Dug-outs  or  caves,  216 
Dumb  waiters,  101 
Dust  covers,  120,  242 

for  mattresses,  192 


Dusting,  243 
Dustless  dusters,  243 

dusting,  243 

sweepers,  121 

sweeping,  242 
Dust  pans,  121 
Dyeing,  284 

Earthen  containers,  217 

dishes,  94 

Earth  water  closets,  33,  34 
Economical  utensils,  75 
Economy  of  light,  color  of  walls,  149 
inverted  lights,  81 
types  of  shades,  80 
Egg  storage,  218 
Eiderdown  quilts,  to  clean,  282 
Electric  cook  stove,  63 

current  types,  59 

fans,  128 

irons,  116 

lamps,  82 

lighting,  59,  82 
of  gas,  59 

meter,  to  read,  60 

motor,  127 

to  stove,  235 

pumps,  28 
Electricity  as  a  fuel,  59 

as  a  light,  82 

to  read  a  meter,  60 
Embroidery  pads,   114 
Enamel  cloth,   152,   173 

ware,  96 

painting  of  woodwork,  293 
Equipment,  bathroom,  226 

cleaning,  118 

construction  of,  85 

dishwashing,  264 

economy  of,  85 

efficiency  of,  85 

general,  84 

height  of,  87 

kitchen,  90 

labor-saving  appliances,  85,  103 

laundry,  103 

placing  of,  86 

selection  of,  84 

utility  of,  85 

Essentials  of  table  linen,   177 
Extermination  of  pests,  307 

Fabrics,  to  clean,  273 
to  dye,  284 


344 


INDEX 


Faucets,  foot  pressure,  41 

goose-neck,  41 

leaky,  to  mend,  41 

material,  40 
Feathers,  mattress,  191 

pillows,  192 
Filing  boxes,  237 
Filters,  42 

kinds,  43 

to  clean,  271 
Fireless  cooker,  76,  98 
gas  stove,  78 
Fixtures,  plumbing,  40 
Flat- work   ironers,    117 
Flax- jute,  162 
Fleas,  to  exterminate,  314 
Flies,  to  exterminate,  309 
Floor,   153 

cloths,  125 

coverings,  to  clean,  246 

finished,  155 

kinds  of  woods,   153 
Flush  closet,  35 

to  clean,  258 
Food  containers,  216 

pits  or  caves,  216 

storage,  211 

Foot-pressure  faucets,  41 
Force  pumps,  26 
Formaldehyde  gas,  303 

formula,  304 
Formalin,  301,  309 
Formula,  formaldehyde  gas,  304 
Fuels,  53 
Fumes,  308 

formaldehyde,  303 

formalin,  309 

sulphur,  303,   309 
Fumigants,  297,  298,  303 

for  extermination  of  pests,  308 
Furnaces,  hot-air,  65 

hot-water,  66 

one-pipe,  67 

steam,  68 

Furnishings,  household,   148 
Furniture,   170 

cleaners,  132 

coverings,  173 

light,  172 

polishes,  132 

to  glue,  294 

wooden,  172 
Fur  rugs,  287 


Galvanized  sinks,  44 

washtubs,  47 
Garbage  containers,   218 

incinerator,  220 

utilization,  221 

waste,  31 
Gas,  57 

burners,   58,   61 

cook  stove,  62 

danger   from,   59 

lights,  81 

meters,  to  read,  57 

pilot  lights,  58 

tops,  74 

water  heater,  69,  70 
Gasoline,   as  exterminator,  308 

as  cleaner,  131 

as  fuel,  55 

danger  from,  131 

engine,  28 

General   equipment,   84 
construction,  85 
labor-saving,  85 
selecting,  84 
utility  and  efficiency,  85 
General  rules  for  cleaning  room,  241 

for  laundering,  278 
General   standard   of  utensils,   97 
Germicides,  298 
Glass  table  tops,  92 

utensils,  94 
Glassware,  202 
Globes,  effect  of,  80 
Gold  and  silver  lace,  to  clean,  283 
Goose-neck  faucets,  41 
Grate  fires,  65,  72 
•Gravity  water  system,  27 
Grease  stains,  to  remove,  274 

traps,  37 

Grouping  tools,   8 
Gum   arabic,    as    starch    substitute, 
141 

Hair  mattress,  191 

pillow,  192 

Half-teaspoon  measure,  98 
Halls,  4 

Hampers,  clothes,  110 
Handles  for  bathroom  fixtures,  259 
Handles  for  curtains,  171 
Hanging  clothes,  227 
Hard  plaster  or  cement  walls,  152 
Hard  water,  22 


INDEX 


345 


Hard  water,  permanently,  23 

temporarily,  22 
Hard  wood,   153 

to  clean,  246 
Heating,  61 

grate  fires,  65 
Heating  and  lighting,  52 

by  stoves,  65 
Height  of  sinks  and  washtubs,  47 

working  surfaces,  87 
Helps  in  classroom,  323 
Hemp  and  grass  carpeting,  161 

furniture,  172 

Home  laundry  equipment,  103 
Hot-air  furnace,  65-67 
Hot-water  heaters,  68 

heating  system,  66 
Hour  service,  19 

chart,  18 

House,  to  close,  232 
Houseflies,  309 
Household  equipment,  84 

furnishing,  148 

labels,  236 

linen,   176 

measures,  146 

paper  supplies,  144 

pests,  307 

to  exterminate,  307 
to  prevent,  307 

pottery,  198 

supplies,  129 

waste,  31 

water  waste,  31 
Housekeeper's  desk,  238 
House  plans,  10-12 
Housewifery        and        management 
courses,  339 

as  a  business,  1 

laboratory,  319 

special  classes,  339 

topics  in  cooking  courses,  339 
Housewife's      suggestions      to      the 

architect,  4-8 
Human  waste,  32 
Humidity  and  heating,  52 
Hydraulic  ram,  28 
Hydrochloric  acid,  135 

used  for  stains,  276 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  304 
Hydrogen  peroxide,  300 

Iceless  refrigerators,  to  make,  214 
Importance  of  storage  problems,  204 


Incinerators,  220 
Ingrain  carpets,   160 
Indirect  lighting,  80 
Inflammables,  to  use  for  pests,  308 
Ink,  to  remove,  275 
Inorganic  waste,  31 
Insoluble  bluing,  141 
Installation  and  care  of  water  sys- 
tem, 29 

Instantaneous  water  heater,  70 
Insulation,  76 
Inverted  lights,  80 
Iron  and  steel,  235 

care  of,  262 
storage,  235 
to  clean,  261,  262 
Iron  holders,  116 
Ironing,  279 
Ironing  boards,  112 
covers,  115 
for  sleeves,  113 

pads,   144 
Iron  rests,  116 
Iron  rust,  to  remove,  275 
Irons,  115 

alcohol,  116 

care  of,  261 

electric,  116 

gas,  116 

gasoline,  116 

kerosene,  116 

to  clean,  235 

Javelle  water,  280 

Kerosene,  54 

as  a  cleaner,  131 

as  a  fuel,  54 

cookstove,  63 

danger  from,  59 

for  pests,  312 

lamps,  80 

to  clean,  250 

hot-water  heater,  70 
Key  tags,  236 
Kinds  of  fuels,  53 

irons,  116 

rugs,   158 

storage,  204 

water,  22 

wood,  153 
Kitchen  cabinet,  92 

closets,  209 

cooking  ware,  198 


346 


INDEX 


Kitchen  equipment,  90 
sanitation,  297 
storage,  92,  209 
supplies,  suggested  list,  103 
tables,  enamel,  92 

glass,  92 

wood,  92 
towels,  183 
utensils,  93 

aluminum,  94 

crockery  and  glass,  94 

enamel  or  agate,  96 

standards  of,  97 

steel,  96 

tin,  97 

to  wash,  264,  265 

wire,  97 

wooden,  97 
workshop,  2 
Knives,  to  wash,  265 

Labels,  household,   236 
Laboratory,  classroom,  319 

equipment,  321 

exercises,  326 

work,  319 

Labor-saving  appliances,  84 
Lacquer,  to  renovate,  295 
Lamps,  electric,  82 

kerosene,  80 

to  clean,  250 

Laundering,  general  directions,  278 
Laundry,  closets,  208 

equipment,  103,  105 

suggestive  list,  118 

storage,  207 

stoves,   64 

work  unit,  2 
Leaky  faucets,  41 
Leather,  care  of,  288 

furniture,  173 
Lemon  oil,  131 
Lesson  outlines,  326,  333 
Light  furniture,  172 
Lighting,  79 

acetylene  and  presto,  81 

candles,   80 

electric,  82 

gas,  81 

hints  on,  83 

kerosene,  80 
Lights,  pilot,  58 
Lime,  299 

chlorinated,  300 


Lime,  quicklime,  299 

slacked,  300 

water,  300 
Linen,  176 

closets,  222 

essentials  of  table  linen.   177 

sizes  of  table  linen,   179 

tests  for  purity  of,  176 

to  buy,  184 
Linoleum,  157 

to  clean,  247,  286 

to  lay,  157 
Linseed  oil,   130 

Liquid  glass,  for  egg  storage,  218 
Lower  sheet  for  bed,  251 
Loans  from  firms,  322 
Long-handled  dustpan,  121 
Lysol,  302 

Machine  oil,  132 
Making  fire,  70 

grate,  70 

stove  and  furnace,  70 
Mangle,  117 
Marble,  to  clean,  250 
Marking  linen,  185 

handkerchiefs,  186 

napkins,  .186 

pillow   case,    186 

sheets,  186 

table  cloth,  185 

towels,  186 

Materials   for  cleaning,    118 
Matting,  to  clean,  286 

to  sweep,  247 
Mattresses,  189 

covers,  192,  251 

pads,   192,  251 

fillings,  190 

to  clean,  251 

tufting,    190 
Measures,    145 
Meat  grinders,  98 

stain,  to  remove,  274 
Medical  equipment  and  supplies,  225 
Medicine  closet,  223 
Metal  lace  and  embroidery,  283 
Metal  polishes,  133 

mesh  pot  washer,  98 
Metals  for  utensils,  94,  96,  97 

to  clean,  260 
Metal  table  tops,  92 
Meter  for  electricity,  60 

for  gas,  57 


INDEX 


347 


Method  of  removing  stains,  276 
Methods    for    teaching   housewifery, 

318 

Mice  and  rats,  to  exterminate,  315 
Milk  separators,  128 
Mirrors,  249 

Miscellaneous  equipment,  126 
Model  housekeeping  centers,  324 
Mohair  for  furnishing,  175 
Mops,   124 

duster,  125 

wringer,  125 

Mosquitoes,  to  exterminate,   310 
Moths,  to  exterminate,  311 
Motors,    small,    127 

to  stove,  235 
Mourning  starch,  140 
Music  cabinets,  as  storage,  232 

Napkins,  179 
Naphtha,   131 

as  a  cleaner,  131 
National  springs,  188 
Nickel  cleaning,  261 
Notions,   suggestive  list  of,   142 

Oilcloth  for  walls,   152 

Oil  dust  mop,  125 

Oiled  wood,   155 

Oil  painting,  to  clean,  296 

Oil  stove  burners,  to  clean,  63,  250 

One-pipe  heater,  67 

Open  plumbing,  46 

Order  of  work  for  cleaning,  241 

Organic  waste,  31 

Organization  of  household,  15 

Oriental  rugs,   161 

Oscillating  washing  machine,  109 

Other  fuels,  54 

Outline  for  washing  dishes,  266 

Oxalic  acid,  135 

used  for  stains,  275 

Pads  for  mattresses,  192 

Paint    and    calcimine   walls,    152 

to  clean,  244 

Painted   floors,   to   clean,    246 
Painting,  bath  tub,  244 

wood,  293 

to  clean,  296 
Painting  oil,  209 
Paint  on  glass,  to  remove,  250 
Palette  knife,  98 
Pantry,  work  unit,  2 


Paper  dish  cloths,  98 

paraffin,    144 

tissue,  144 

toilet,  144 

towelling,    145 

wall,   149 

wrapping,  145,  238 

writing,  145 
Paraffin  candles,  80 

oil,   130 

wax,  130 

Pastes  for  metal  cleaning,  133 
Personal  cleanliness,  298 
Pests,  ants,  313 

bed  bug,  312 

carpet  beetle,  314 

centipedes,  317 

fleas,  314 

flies,   309 

mosquitoes,  310 

moths,  311 

rats  and  mice,  315 

roaches,  312 

silverfish,  316 

squirrels  and   chipmunks,   315 

to  exterminate,   307 
Pewter  and  britannia,  to  clean,  262 
Piano  keys,   to   clean,   250 
Pictures,  to  clean,  296 

to  store,  234 
Pile  carpets,  160 
Pillows,  to  clean,  282 

feathers,  192 
Pilot  lights,  58 
Pipeless  heater,  67 
Pipes,  to  thaw,  30 
Piston  pumps,  25 
Placing  equipment,  6,  86 
Plaster  casts,  to  clean,  295 
Plaster  of  paris,  to  use,  307 
Plumbing,  21 

fixtures,  40 

open  plumbing,  46 

to  close  the  house,  235 
Poisons  to  exterminate  vermin,  308 
Polishes,   furniture,    132 

metals,  133 

wood,   155 
Porcelain,  sinks,  44 

to  clean,  257,  262 

tubs,  47 

Potassium  permanganate,  275 
Pottery,  198 
Powders  for  pests,  308 


348 


INDEX 


Preserve  closet,  206 

Pressure  and  suction  washer,  108 

Practice   work,   323 

in  homes,  325 

Preparation  for  dishwashing,  264 
Presto  lights,  81 

Preventive    measures    in    household 
sanitation,  297 

bedroom,  298 

cellar,  297 

grounds,  297 

house   in   general,   297 

kitchen,   297 

laundry,  297 
Privies,  33 
Pumping  by  power,  28 

electric  pumps,  28 

gasoline  engines,  28 

hydraulic  ram,  28 

windmill,  28 
Pumps,  25 

chain,  26 

bucket,  26 

electric,  28 

force,  26 

piston,  25 

Quality  of  blankets,  193 
Quicklime,  299 
Quilts,   196 

Radiators,  to  clean,  248 

Rag  rugs,    162 

Rain  water,  23 

Ram,  hydraulic,  28 

Rats    and    mice,    extermination    of, 

315 
Recipe,  detergent,  274 

javelle,  280 

filler  for  woods,  291 

formaldehyde  gas,  304 

furniture  polish,  132 

metal   polish,    261 

oxalic  acid,  275 

paint  remover,  290 

paste  for  wallpaper,  152 

prepared  wax,   132,  295 

soap,    137 

starch,  279 

wood  cleaner,  246 

whitewash,  300 
Recreation  unit  of  house,  3 
Refrigeration,   211  ( 


Refrigerator,   arrangement  of,  214 

care  of,  269 

cleaning,  269 

construction,  214 

dishes,   215 

iceless,  214 

temperature  of,  212 
Regulating  dampers,  72 
Removing  stains,  277 

water  rings,  277 
Renovation  of  brass  mountings,  295 

of  lacquered  ware,  295 

of  oil  paintings,  296 

of  plaster  casts,  295 

of  woods,  289 
Repp    for    drapery    and    upholstery, 

176 

Rest  unit  of  house,  3 
Reviews  in   housewifery,   333 
Rice  starch,  140 
Rinsing   clothes,  278 
Roaches,  to  exterminate,  312 
Rooms,  cleaning  of,  241 

fumigating  of,  305 

lighting  of,  79 
Rosin,  136 
Rotary  washer,  108 
Rotten  stone,   133 
Rouge  cloths  for  silver,  134 
Rubber  goods,  to  clean,   235,  305 

to  store,  235 
Rugs  and  carpets,   158 

to    clean,    247,    284 
to  store,  234 
types  of,  158 
value  of,  162 
weave  of,   160,   162 
Rules  for  buying  supplies,  129 
Rural  home  storage,   204 
Russia  iron,  93 

Sanitation  of  bedroom,  298 
cellar,   297 

grounds  about  house,  297 
house  in  general,  298 
kitchen,  297 
laundry,  298 
Saving  colors,  277,  280 
Schedule     for     housewife     without 

help,   15 

with  help,   16,   17 
School  courses  in  housewifery,  326, 

333 
Score  cards,   13,  14 


INDEX 


349 


Scourers  and  cleaners,   139 
Screen  for  pests,  309 

cleaning  of,   235 

storage  of,  234 
Selecting   equipment,   84 
Septic  tank,  38 
Service  chart,   16,   17 
Setting   colors,   277 
Sewage  disposal,  37 
Sewing  machine,  120 
Sewing  supplies,   142 

storage  of,  231 
Sheets,  for  bed,  193 
Shellacked  floors,  155 
Shoes,  to  clean,  288 

cleaning  outfit,  227 

storage,   228 
Silks,  to  bleach,  281 
Silver,  care  of,  233 

cleaners,    133 

cleaning  of,  262 

cleaning  pans,   134,  203 

cloths,  134 

pastes,    134 

powders,  134 

soaps,  134 

storage,   232 
Silverfish,  316 
Silverware,   196 
Simmering  burners,   74 
Sink,  43 

drain  boards,  45 

drains,  45 

faucets,  41 

heights  of,  47,  87 

materials,  44 

open  plumbing  for,  46 

size  of,  44 

slop,  47 

space  savings,  46 

strainer,  98 

to  clean,  206 
Slacked  lime,  300 
Slate  sinks,  44 
Sleeve  boards,   113 
Small  electric  motor,   127 
Soaking  clothes,  278 
Soap,  136 

as  a  disinfectant,  299 

bark,  139 

chips,   138 

for   silver,   262 

making  of,  137,  138 

powders,  138 


Soap  solution,  137 

substitute,   139 
Soda,  138 

solution,  138,  299 
Soft  water,  22 
Softening  water,  23 
Sorting  clothes,  278 
Space  for  furniture,  6 
Space-saving  sinks,  46 
Special   classes  in   housewifery,  339 
Special  storage  closets,  221 
Spiral  springs,  188 
Sport    and    athletic    goods,    storage 

of,  232 

Spotting  precautions,  277 
Springs  for  beds,  187 
Sprinklers,    112 
Sprinkling  clothes,  278 
Squirrels  and  chipmunks,  as  pests, 

<3  lO 

Staining  woods,  291 
Stains,  outfit,  274 

precautions,   277 

to  remove,  274 
Standardization,  9 
Standardizing,   tools   and   tasks,   9 
Starch,   139 

blended,  140 

kinds,  140 

mourning,   140 

prepared,  140 

recipe  for,  279 

substitutes,   borax,    140 
bran,  141 
dextrine,   141 
gum  arabic,   141 

tints  for,  140 
Starching   clothes,    278 
Starting  fires,   furnaces,  70 
grates,  65 
stoves,  70 

Stationary  tubs,  104 
Steam  heating,  68 
Steel,  96 

to  clean,  262,  289 

wool,   133 
Storage,  204 

closets,  221 

of  articles  for  personal  use,  231 

of  carpets  and  rugs,  234 

of  clothing,  227 

cellar,  205 

commercial,   204 

eggs,  218 


350 


INDEX 


Storage,   electric  motors,   235 
iron  and  steel,  235 
laundry,   207 
linen,   223 
medicine,  223 
music,  232 
personal  articles,  231 
preserves,  206 
rural,  204 
rubber  goods,  235 
shoes,  228 

sewing  materials,  230 
silver,   232 

sport  or  athletic  goods,  232 
tools,  227 
trunks,   207 
vegetables,  206 
wrapping  paper,  238 
Stove  boiler,  68 
burner,  58 
care  of,  73 
cleaning,  289 
Stoves,  234 
cook,  61 
coal,   62 
gas,  62 
electricity.  63 
kerosene,  63 
heating  by,  65 
laundry,   64 
to  clean,  289 

Strychnine   for   pests,   308 
Subsoil  drainage,  39 
Suggestions  for  buying  china,  200 
for  buying  linen,  184 
for  review,  334 
for  teachers,  318 
for  ventilation,  52 
Suggestive  lists  of  bathroom  equip- 
ment,  226 

of  china,  201 

of  cleaning,  118 

of  glass,  201 

of   household   disinfectants, 
305 

of  household  supplies,  104 

of  kitchen,  90 

of  laundry,    103,    104 

of  linen,  184 

of  medical   equipment   and 
supplies,  225 

of  sewing,   143 

of  silver  201 

of  paper,   145 


Sulphur  fumes,  303,  309 
Sunlight  as  a  bleach,  280 

as  a  disinfectant,  299 
Supervision  of  water  supply,  22 
Supplies,  buying  of,   129 

cleaning,  118 

kitchen,  90 

laundry,  103 

medicine,  225 

paper,  144 

sewing,  143 

writing  desk,  145 
Sweepers,  221,  222 
Sweeping,    dustless,   242 
Swinging  shelves,  207 

Table  linen,  essentials  of,  177 

sizes,  179 
Table  tops,  294 
Table,  kinds,  294 

enamel  top,  92 
glass  top,  92 
wooden  top,  92 

height  of,  90 

of  disinfectants,  302 

of   weights    and   measures,    145 

to  choose,  92 
Tableware,    198 
Tags  and  labels,  236 
Tank   system,   air  pressure,   29 
Tanks,  water,  29 
Tapes  for  marking,  185 
Tapestries,  173 

to  clean,  286 

Teacher  of  housewifery,  340 
Tea  leaves  for  cleaning,  242 
Test  for  purity  of  linen,  176 
Tile  walls,  152 

floors,  156 

to  clean,  245 
Tincture  of  iodine,  as  a  disinfectant, 

301 
Tinware,  97 

to  clean,  262,  289 
Tissue  paper,  144 
To  bleach  cottons  and  linens,  280 

silks  and  wools,  281 

wood,  291 

To  buy,  general  rules,   129 
To  clean  agate,  261 

aluminum,  261 

a  room,  241 

bathroom   furnishings,  257 

bed,  250 


INDEX 


351 


To  clean  a  frame,  250 

springs,  250 
brass,  261 

lacquered,  295 

mountings,    295 
britannia,   262 
brushes,  259 
burners  on  oil   stoves,   269 

gas   stoves,   269 
calcimined   walls,   245 
carpets,   247 
chamois,  288 
combs,  259 
copper,  261 
corduroy,  283 
dry  clean,  283 
eiderdown  quilts,  822 
enamel  paint,  246 
filters,  271 
flush  closets,  258 
furniture,  246,  289 
furs,  287 

gold  and   silver  lace,  283 
handles,  259 
hardwood,   246 
iron,  261 

lacquered  ware,  295 
lamps,  kerosene,  250 
leather,  288 
linoleum,  247,  286 
marble,  250 
matting,  247,  286 
mattress,  251 
metals,  260 
mirrors,  249 
nickel,  261 
oiled  wood,  263,  291 
oil  painting,  296 
paint   from  glass   and   mirrors, 

250 
painted   floors,   246,   293 

walls,  244,  293 
pewter,  262 
piano  keys,  250 
pillows,  282 
plaster  casts,  295 
porcelain,  257,  262 
radiators,  248 
refrigerator,  269 
rubber,  235,  305 
rugs  and  carpets,  247,  284 
silver,  262 
sinks,  266 
springs,  250 


To  clean  steel,  262,  289 

stoves,  267,  289 

table  tops,  294 

tapestries,  286 

tiles,  245 

tin,  262,  289 

varnished  wood,  291,  293 

velvets,  282 

wall  coverings,  243,  244 

wallpaper,  243 

walls,  243 

white  enamel  wood,  246 

wicker  ware,  294 

windows,  248 

window  shades,  282 

wooden  floors,  155 

woods,  289 

zinc,  262,  289 
To  close  the  house,  232 
To   dry   clean,   283 
To  glue  furniture,  294 
Toilet  paper,  244 
To  make  a  bed,  251 

a  fire,  70 

a   sick   bed,   254 
To  oil  wood,  291 
To  organize  storage,   236 
Tools  for  cleaning,   118 

housewife,    227 
To  paint,  293 
To  polish  wood,  293 
To  prepare  bed  at  night,  257 
To  prepare  room  for  fumigation,  304 
To  put  away  clothing,  228 
To  put  on  upper  sheet,  254 

lower   sheet,  251 
To  read  gas  meter,  57 

electric  meter,  60 
To  refinish  table  tops,  294 

woods,    290 
To  remove  alcohol  spots,  293 

clinkers   from  fire  pot,   74 

dents   and  bruises,   292 

paint  and  varnish,  290 

scratches    from   woodwork,    292 

stains  from  clothing,  274 

water  from  woodwork,  292 

water  spots  from  fabrics,  277 
from  wood,  293 
from  waxed  floors,  293 
To  restore  color,  280 
To  stain  wood,  291 
To  store  beds,  234 

clothing,  227 


352 


INDEX 


To  store  eggs,  218 

linen,  222 

medicine,  223 

personal  articles,  231 

rugs  and  carpets,  234 

shoes,   228 

silver,  232 

tools,  227 

trunks,  207 

window  screens,  235 
To  thaw  water  pipes,  30 
To  use  a  filler,  291 

a  filter,  292 
To  varnish,   142 
To  wax  wood,  292 
Towels,   179 

size  of,  183 

kinds,  179,  183 
To  wipe  walls,  243 
Traps,  grease,  36,  37 

for   pests,    309 

water,  36 
Tray,  145 
Tricresol,  302 
Trunk  storage,  207 
Tubs,  bath,  50 

wash,  47 

Tufted  carpets,  161 
Tungsten  lamps,  52 
Turpentine,  131 

on  waxed  floors,  293 

Upholstered  furniture,  173 
materials  for,  173 
to  store,  234 

Upper  sheet,  to  put  on,  254 
Utensils,      comparative      value      of 
materials,  93,  97 

Vacuum  bottles,  79 

cleaners,  122 

sweepers,  122 

Various  washing  devices,  110 
Varnished  wood,  289 

care  of,  289,  291..   293 
Vegetable  bins,   206 
Velvets,  to  clean,  282 
Ventilation,  52 

suggestion  for,  53 
Voltage,  59 

Wallpaper,   149 
to  clean,  243 
coverings,  to  clean,  243,  244 


Wallpaper,  kinds,   150 
Walls,   149 

finish  of,   152 
Wash  basins,  51 

benches,   104 

boards,  104 
Washing  china,  265 

clothes,  278 

devices,  110 

dish  towels,  265 

dishes,  264 

glass,  264 

kitchen  utensils,  264 

knives,  265 
Washing  machines,    107,    110 

rugs  and  carpets,  286 

silver,   265 

soda,  138 

windows,  243 

Washing  soda  as  a  disinfectant,  299 
Wash  tubs,  47,  104 

height  of,  47 
material  of,  44 
Water,  heating  by  gas,  69 

heating  by  kerosene,  71 

installation  and  care,  29 

kinds  of,  22 

pumps,  25 

shut  off,  30 

stains,  to  remove,  277 

stopcock,  30 

storage,    24 

supply,   22 

tanks,  29 

traps,  36 
Waste,  household  water,  31 

human,  32 

inorganic,    31 

organic,  31 
Waxed,  oiled  or  varnished  wood,  155 

to    clean,    132 
Wax,  for  polished  furniture,  132 

recipe  for,  295 
Weights  and  measures,  145 
Wells,  24 

Wheel  egg  beater,  99 
Wheel  table,  101 
White  enamel  paint,   294 
to  clean,  246 
Whitewash,  300 
Whiting,   134,    135 
Wicker  furniture,   172 
to  clean,  294 


INDEX 


353 


Wilton  carpets,   161 

Window  food  storage  box,  99,  216 

Windows,  to  clean,  248 

to  close  the  house,  234 
Window  shades,   171,  287 

screens,  171,  235 

ventilators,  171 
Wire  dish  drainer,  100 
WTire  ware,  97 
Wood  as  fuel,  53 

bins,  206 

care  and  renewal,  298 

to  bleach,  291 

to  clean  water  spots  from.  293 

to  clean  painted  and  varnished, 
293 

to  oil,  155,  291 

to  paint,  293 

to  polish,  293 

to  refinish,  155,  293 

to  remove  alcohol  from,  293 

to    remove    dents    and    bruisea 
from,  292 


Wood,  to  remove  paint  and  varnish 
from,  290 

to  remove  scratches  from,  292 

to  remove  water  spots  from,  293 

to  shellac,  292 

to   stain,   291 

to  use  a  filler  on,  291 

to  wax,  155,  292 
Wooden   furniture,    172 

sinks,   44 

spoons,    100 

table  tops,  92,  294 

ware,  97 

wash  tubs,  47 

Work  of  removing  stains,  276 
\Vork  unit,  1 

Wrapping  paper  and  string,  238 
Wringers,    106 

for  mops,   125 

to  clean,  235 
Wrought  iron,  to  clean,  261 

Zinc,  to  clean,  262,  289 


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